title: Pediatric aspects in Graves' orbitopathy.
abstract: Although pediatric Graves' disease is an uncommon condition, children have about the same (or slightly increased) risk as adults to develop Graves' ophthalmopathy (GO) once they have contracted Graves' hyperthyroidism. GO occurs in the same proportion between sexes but with a milder clinical presentation compared with adults. Lid lag, soft tissue involvement and proptosis are the commonest manifestations, whereas restricted eye muscle motility, severe strabismus and optic neuropathy are practically absent. Genetic, immunologic and environmental factors may be associated with the different appearance of GO in children and adolescents. Interestingly, manifestation of GO begins to resemble the adult findings more closely when adolescence approaches. This could be explained by increasing smoking prevalence with age as long as smoking is a proven to be a risk factor for GO, and the odds increase significantly with increasing severity of GO. Management of hyperthyroidism is essential for the control of complications and seems to offer improvement of eye changes upon restoration of euthyroidism. Antithyroid drugs are the first choice treatment. Lasting remission rates though are achieved in less than 30% of cases. Long periods of therapy are needed and risk for side effects (often serious) increases. In resistant or severe cases early radical treatment with surgery or radioiodine is needed. Both can be equally effective and safe in selected cases. Identification of subjects prone to relapses is critical for optimal management. Regarding treatment of thyroid eye disease in childhood, most physicians who are dealing with such cases prefer a 'wait-and-see' policy. Pharmacological intervention, predominantly with steroids, is considered appropriate in case of deterioration or no improvement of eye changes when the patient has become euthyroid. It has been shown that somatostatin analogs (SM-as) might be of therapeutic value in the treatment of active eye disease in adults. Newer generations of SM-as that target a wider range of somatostatin receptors may show markedly superior results in the treatment of ophthalmopathy. Surgical orbital decompression is hardly ever necessary due to the mild nature of the disease, while retrobulbar irradiation, which has been proved beneficial in adults, has no place in the treatment of juvenile GO, in view of the theoretical risk of tumor induction.
authors.affiliation: Molecular Endocrinology Group, MRC, Clinical Sciences Centre, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital, London, UK.
authors.forename: Apostolos I
authors.initials: AI
authors.lastname: Gogakos
authors.forename: Kostas
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Boboridis
authors.forename: Gerasimos E
authors.initials: GE
authors.lastname: Krassas
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002648:Child; D049970:Graves Ophthalmopathy / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000601:surgery / Q000628:therapy; D006801:Humans; D010372:Pediatrics; D015995:Prevalence; D012307:Risk Factors