title: Immunobiology of herpes simplex virus and cytomegalovirus infections of the fetus and newborn.
abstract: Immunologic "immaturity" is often blamed for the increased susceptibility of newborn humans to infection, but the precise mechanisms and details of immunologic development remain somewhat obscure. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) are two of the more common severe infectious agents of the fetal and newborn periods. HSV infection in the newborn most commonly occurs after exposure to the virus during delivery, and can lead to a spectrum of clinical disease ranging from isolated skin-eye-mucous membrane infection to severe disseminated multiorgan disease, often including encephalitis. In contrast to HSV, clinically severe CMV infections early in life are usually acquired during the intrauterine period. These infections can result in a range of clinical disease, including hearing loss and neurodevelopmental delay. However, term newborns infected with CMV after delivery are generally asymptomatic, and older children and adults often acquire infection with HSV or CMV with either no or mild clinical symptoms. The reasons for these widely variable clinical presentations are not completely understood, but likely relate to developmental differences in immune responses.This review summarizes recent human and animal studies of the immunologic response of the fetus and newborn to these two infections, in comparison to the responses of older children and adults. The immunologic defense of the newborn against each virus is considered under the broader categories of (i) the placental barrier to infection, (ii) skin and mucosal barriers (including antimicrobial peptides), (iii) innate responses, (iv) humoral responses, and (v) cellular responses. A specific focus is made on recent studies of innate and cellular immunity to HSV and CMV.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
authors.forename: William J
authors.initials: WJ
authors.lastname: Muller
authors.forename: Cheryl A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Jones
authors.forename: David M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Koelle
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2002 Jun 1;185(11):1550-60
references.pmid: 12023760
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2008 Jul 1;198(1):31-4
references.pmid: 18471083
references.citation: Hum Reprod. 2005 May;20(5):1372-8
references.pmid: 15695310
references.citation: J Virol. 2000 Aug;74(15):6808-20
references.pmid: 10888620
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 2008 Jan;38(1):102-13
references.pmid: 18081035
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 1984 Jul;150(1):14-9
references.pmid: 6086768
references.citation: J Immunol. 2005 Jun 1;174(11):7217-25
references.pmid: 15905567
references.citation: Placenta. 2007 May-Jun;28(5-6):527-37
references.pmid: 16822542
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1999 Feb 15;189(4):663-72
references.pmid: 9989981
references.citation: J Virol. 2007 Mar;81(5):2095-101
references.pmid: 16956936
references.citation: J Perinatol. 2001 Dec;21(8):559-64
references.pmid: 11774021
references.citation: J Immunol. 2008 May 1;180(9):5799-803
references.pmid: 18424698
references.citation: Annu Rev Biochem. 1998;67:227-64
references.pmid: 9759489
references.citation: J Virol. 2004 Mar;78(5):2632-6
references.pmid: 14963171
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2004 Jul;4(7):553-64
references.pmid: 15229474
references.citation: Virol J. 2007 Dec 05;4:133
references.pmid: 18053251
references.citation: Nat Med. 2005 May;11(5):515-21
references.pmid: 15834425
references.citation: J Immunol. 2008 Apr 1;180(7):4965-77
references.pmid: 18354222
references.citation: Biol Reprod. 2007 Dec;77(6):1049-59
references.pmid: 17881767
references.citation: J Autoimmun. 2003 Nov;21(3):277-81
references.pmid: 14599853
references.citation: Immunol Today. 1999 Jul;20(7):330-5
references.pmid: 10379052
references.citation: Curr Opin Immunol. 2005 Aug;17(4):338-44
references.pmid: 15950447
references.citation: J Clin Virol. 2006 Feb;35(2):221-5
references.pmid: 16384744
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 15;195(6):817-25
references.pmid: 17299711
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2007 May;7(5):379-90
references.pmid: 17457344
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Mar 7;103(10):3840-5
references.pmid: 16497831
references.citation: J Immunol. 2008 Apr 15;180(8):5737-45
references.pmid: 18390759
references.citation: Immunity. 2004 Jul;21(1):107-19
references.pmid: 15345224
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 1992 May;165(5):813-8
references.pmid: 1314868
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Jun 25;99(13):8826-31
references.pmid: 12060703
references.citation: Med Microbiol Immunol. 2008 Jun;197(2):179-84
references.pmid: 18264717
references.citation: Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2004 Jul 05;2:52
references.pmid: 15236650
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2008 Mar 1;197(5):658-62
references.pmid: 18279047
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1996 Aug 1;184(2):539-48
references.pmid: 8760807
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1997 Aug 21;337(8):509-15
references.pmid: 9262493
references.citation: J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2002 Nov;61(11):1013-21
references.pmid: 12430718
references.citation: J Immunol. 2004 Apr 1;172(7):4123-32
references.pmid: 15034024
references.citation: J Pediatr. 1986 Jan;108(1):1-12
references.pmid: 3511202
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2004 Oct;74(2):262-71
references.pmid: 15332275
references.citation: Am J Dis Child. 1990 Dec;144(12):1365-8
references.pmid: 2173889
references.citation: J Pediatr. 1981 Mar;98(3):379-84
references.pmid: 6162936
references.citation: J Virol. 2004 Jun;78(12):6282-6
references.pmid: 15163721
references.citation: Clin Immunol. 2006 Dec;121(3):369-71
references.pmid: 16861041
references.citation: Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2006;306:91-110
references.pmid: 16909919
references.citation: J Virol. 2006 Oct;80(20):9943-50
references.pmid: 17005672
references.citation: Trends Microbiol. 2000 Sep;8(9):410-8
references.pmid: 10989308
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002 Oct;15(4):680-715
references.pmid: 12364375
references.citation: Antiviral Res. 2001 Dec;52(3):225-39
references.pmid: 11675140
references.citation: Sex Transm Dis. 2007 Sep;34(9):704-8
references.pmid: 17413535
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 2005 May;35(5):1454-62
references.pmid: 15789359
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 2009 Jan;39(1):26-35
references.pmid: 19137537
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Mar 9;101(10):3516-21
references.pmid: 14993594
references.citation: Clin Exp Immunol. 1996 Mar;103(3):408-13
references.pmid: 8608639
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1996 Apr 1;183(4):1613-21
references.pmid: 8666919
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2008 Dec 22;205(13):3041-52
references.pmid: 19047439
references.citation: J Immunol. 2006 Dec 15;177(12):8658-66
references.pmid: 17142766
references.citation: Am J Perinatol. 2003 Feb;20(2):55-8
references.pmid: 12660908
references.citation: Cell Microbiol. 2004 May;6(5):401-10
references.pmid: 15056211
references.citation: Virology. 2004 Jan 5;318(1):405-13
references.pmid: 14972565
references.citation: Curr Opin Immunol. 2008 Feb;20(1):39-48
references.pmid: 18083507
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 2005;23:275-306
references.pmid: 15771572
references.citation: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2003 Sep;44(9):3795-801
references.pmid: 12939294
references.citation: Nature. 2000 Dec 7;408(6813):740-5
references.pmid: 11130078
references.citation: Gene. 1995 Apr 3;155(2):261-5
references.pmid: 7721102
references.citation: J Virol. 2007 Jan;81(1):332-48
references.pmid: 17065212
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006 Jul;19(3):491-511
references.pmid: 16847082
references.citation: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003 Oct;112(4):667-74
references.pmid: 14564342
references.citation: Science. 2006 Oct 13;314(5797):308-12
references.pmid: 16973841
references.citation: Pediatrics. 1980 Nov;66(5):758-62
references.pmid: 6159568
references.citation: Science. 2008 May 30;320(5880):1220-4
references.pmid: 18436744
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2005 Apr;6(4):345-52
references.pmid: 15785760
references.citation: Curr Eye Res. 2005 May;30(5):385-94
references.pmid: 16020269
references.citation: Br J Dermatol. 2008 Dec;159(6):1217-28
references.pmid: 18945310
references.citation: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006 Apr;117(4):836-41
references.pmid: 16630942
references.citation: Immunity. 2004 Apr;20(4):429-40
references.pmid: 15084272
references.citation: J Virol. 2009 Feb;83(4):1952-61
references.pmid: 19073735
references.citation: J Virol. 2003 Feb;77(3):1877-84
references.pmid: 12525622
references.citation: J Dent Res. 2002 Dec;81(12):845-50
references.pmid: 12454100
references.citation: JAMA. 2003 Jan 8;289(2):203-9
references.pmid: 12517231
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 2006 Apr;168(4):1210-26
references.pmid: 16565496
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008 Jun;52(6):2120-9
references.pmid: 18391029
references.citation: J Virol. 2007 Sep;81(18):9838-50
references.pmid: 17626075
references.citation: J Virol. 2004 Apr;78(8):4185-96
references.pmid: 15047834
references.citation: Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Jul;195(1):115-20
references.pmid: 16813750
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1989 Jun 29;320(26):1731-5
references.pmid: 2543925
references.citation: Nature. 2007 Jul 26;448(7152):501-5
references.pmid: 17618271
references.citation: Microbiol Immunol. 1999;43(2):161-6
references.pmid: 10229270
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2005 Mar 1;191(5):746-8
references.pmid: 15688290
references.citation: Curr Opin Immunol. 2004 Aug;16(4):463-9
references.pmid: 15245740
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2005 Nov 15;192(10):1731-40
references.pmid: 16235171
references.citation: Pediatrics. 1979 Feb;63(2):250-1
references.pmid: 220584
references.citation: J Interferon Cytokine Res. 2007 Jan;27(1):65-75
references.pmid: 17266445
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 2000;18:861-926
references.pmid: 10837078
references.citation: J Clin Virol. 2008 Mar;41(3):198-205
references.pmid: 18243784
references.citation: Rev Infect Dis. 1991 Mar-Apr;13(2):315-29
references.pmid: 1645882
references.citation: Science. 1996 Mar 22;271(5256):1723-6
references.pmid: 8596932
references.citation: Pediatr Res. 1990 Jan;27(1):7-10
references.pmid: 2153279
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2007 Aug 15;196(4):505-9
references.pmid: 17624834
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2007 May 15;44(10):1315-20
references.pmid: 17443468
references.citation: Pediatr Res. 2003 Apr;53(4):566-72
references.pmid: 12612195
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2004 Feb;85(Pt 2):343-347
references.pmid: 14769891
references.citation: Pediatrics. 2000 Jul;106(1 Pt 1):105-8
references.pmid: 10878157
references.citation: Immunity. 2006 Jul;25(1):153-62
references.pmid: 16860764
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2004 Nov 15;190(10):1841-9
references.pmid: 15499542
references.citation: Nature. 1953 Oct 3;172(4379):603-6
references.pmid: 13099277
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 2008 Sep;38(9):2377-85
references.pmid: 18792031
references.citation: Curr Opin Pediatr. 1999 Oct;11(5):471-4
references.pmid: 10555601
references.citation: Clin Immunol. 2006 Dec;121(3):251-9
references.pmid: 17010668
references.citation: Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1989 Feb;8(2):67-74
references.pmid: 2649866
references.citation: J Pediatr. 2008 Jun;152(6):777-81
references.pmid: 18492515
references.citation: J Virol. 2001 Oct;75(20):9596-600
references.pmid: 11559791
references.citation: Cytokine. 2007 Sep;39(3):171-7
references.pmid: 17884557
references.citation: J Med Case Rep. 2008 Aug 26;2:282
references.pmid: 18727822
references.citation: J Immunol. 2008 Feb 1;180(3):1556-64
references.pmid: 18209051
references.citation: J Immunol. 2008 Jun 1;180(11):7525-36
references.pmid: 18490753
references.citation: Nature. 2008 Sep 18;455(7211):391-5
references.pmid: 18701889
references.citation: Curr Opin Immunol. 2005 Feb;17(1):29-35
references.pmid: 15653307
references.citation: J Pathol. 2006 Sep;210(1):111-20
references.pmid: 16826536
references.citation: Mol Cell Endocrinol. 1997 Sep 19;132(1-2):73-80
references.pmid: 9324048
references.citation: J Virol. 1997 Nov;71(11):8109-15
references.pmid: 9343160
references.citation: Pediatrics. 1983 Mar;71(3):455-7
references.pmid: 6828354
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1992 Mar 5;326(10):663-7
references.pmid: 1310525
references.citation: Nat Immun Cell Growth Regul. 1991;10(5):237-46
references.pmid: 1661847
references.citation: Am J Dis Child. 1982 Oct;136(10):902-5
references.pmid: 6289657
references.citation: J Immunol. 2006 Dec 1;177(11):7510-4
references.pmid: 17114418
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 1987 Jan;155(1):28-37
references.pmid: 3025306
references.citation: J Virol. 2004 May;78(10):5147-56
references.pmid: 15113897
references.citation: Blood. 2004 Feb 15;103(4):1433-7
references.pmid: 14563635
references.citation: J Immunol. 2006 Oct 1;177(7):4735-41
references.pmid: 16982913
references.citation: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004 Dec;114(6):1456-62
references.pmid: 15577852
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Feb 3;101(5):1315-20
references.pmid: 14739339
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Nov;106(5 Pt 2):1187-9
references.pmid: 16260566
references.citation: Virology. 1998 Nov 25;251(2):317-26
references.pmid: 9837796
references.citation: Pediatr Res. 2002 Mar;51(3):317-22
references.pmid: 11861936
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2006 Sep 15;194 Suppl 1:S11-8
references.pmid: 16921466
references.citation: J Virol. 2008 Jul;82(14):7078-88
references.pmid: 18480436
references.citation: J Virol. 2001 Jul;75(13):5958-64
references.pmid: 11390597
references.citation: J Virol. 2007 Oct;81(20):11128-38
references.pmid: 17686871
references.citation: Microbes Infect. 2008 Mar;10(3):302-12
references.pmid: 18325811
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2006 Mar;7(3):241-6
references.pmid: 16482172
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 2000 Feb;30(2):509-15
references.pmid: 10671206
references.citation: J Immunol. 2004 Nov 15;173(10):6312-8
references.pmid: 15528370
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 1996 Jul;26(7):1527-31
references.pmid: 8766556
references.citation: Antiviral Res. 2001 Aug;51(2):141-9
references.pmid: 11431038
references.citation: Antiviral Res. 2003 May;58(3):209-15
references.pmid: 12767468
references.citation: J Virol. 2004 Mar;78(5):2454-9
references.pmid: 14963140
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 2002 Dec;161(6):2011-7
references.pmid: 12466117
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2001 May 21;193(10):1199-212
references.pmid: 11369791
references.citation: J Immunol. 2004 Sep 15;173(6):3916-24
references.pmid: 15356140
references.citation: J Immunol. 2005 Oct 1;175(7):4189-93
references.pmid: 16177057
references.citation: Blood. 2006 Nov 15;108(10):3371-8
references.pmid: 16868256
references.citation: Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003 Feb;129(2):211-4
references.pmid: 12578451
references.citation: Semin Immunol. 2001 Feb;13(1):1-9
references.pmid: 11289794
references.citation: J Immunol. 2003 Feb 1;170(3):1430-4
references.pmid: 12538704
references.citation: J Immunol. 2005 Sep 15;175(6):4000-8
references.pmid: 16148148
references.citation: Infect Immun. 1999 May;67(5):2561-6
references.pmid: 10225921
references.citation: Antiviral Res. 2004 Feb;61(2):101-9
references.pmid: 14670583
references.citation: J Virol. 2008 Nov;82(21):10820-31
references.pmid: 18715907
references.citation: JAMA. 1999 Jul 28;282(4):331-40
references.pmid: 10432030
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1999 Mar 1;189(5):821-9
references.pmid: 10049946
references.citation: Cell. 2006 Feb 24;124(4):783-801
references.pmid: 16497588
references.citation: J Virol. 2007 Jan;81(1):229-36
references.pmid: 17050600
references.citation: Infect Immun. 1999 Jun;67(6):2740-5
references.pmid: 10338476
references.citation: Cell. 1996 Nov 1;87(3):427-36
references.pmid: 8898196
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 2008 Feb;38(2):507-17
references.pmid: 18200500
references.citation: Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2008;321:101-22
references.pmid: 18727489
references.citation: Semin Perinatol. 1983 Jan;7(1):31-42
references.pmid: 6302912
references.citation: South Med J. 1997 Mar;90(3):347-51
references.pmid: 9076313
references.citation: Infect Immun. 2002 Dec;70(12):6688-96
references.pmid: 12438343
references.citation: J Virol. 2003 Oct;77(20):11139-49
references.pmid: 14512561
references.citation: J Virol. 2004 Aug;78(16):8411-20
references.pmid: 15280450
references.citation: Pediatrics. 1992 May;89(5 Pt 1):891-4
references.pmid: 1315949
references.citation: J Virol. 1985 Aug;55(2):402-9
references.pmid: 2991565
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 1995 Mar;20(3):665-70
references.pmid: 7756493
references.citation: Pediatrics. 1992 Dec;90(6):862-6
references.pmid: 1331946
references.citation: J Virol. 2003 Apr;77(8):4588-96
references.pmid: 12663765
references.citation: Trends Microbiol. 2002 Oct;10(10):470-4
references.pmid: 12377557
references.citation: J Virol. 2001 Jan;75(1):83-9
references.pmid: 11119576
references.citation: Immunity. 2005 Nov;23(5):465-78
references.pmid: 16286015
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1999 Jul;54(7):463-8
references.pmid: 10394584
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2007 Nov;7(11):875-88
references.pmid: 17948021
references.citation: Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2001 Jul;8(4):818-21
references.pmid: 11427433
references.citation: J Immunol. 1999 Jan 15;162(2):957-64
references.pmid: 9916720
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Oct 26;101(43):15470-5
references.pmid: 15494436
references.citation: Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1992 Feb;11(2):93-9
references.pmid: 1311066
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1990 May 1;171(5):1469-83
references.pmid: 2159050
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2003 Jan 15;187(2):165-78
references.pmid: 12552441
references.citation: J Immunol. 2007 Nov 1;179(9):6176-83
references.pmid: 17947693
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 1999 Oct;29(10):3245-53
references.pmid: 10540336
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2005 Aug 15;192(4):650-7
references.pmid: 16028134
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Nov 14;103(46):17343-8
references.pmid: 17085599
references.citation: J Virol. 1986 Dec;60(3):1068-74
references.pmid: 3023659
references.citation: Exp Eye Res. 1999 Nov;69(5):483-90
references.pmid: 10548468
references.citation: Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2008 Feb;4(2):97-104
references.pmid: 18256681
references.citation: J Virol. 2007 Dec;81(24):13315-24
references.pmid: 17913820
references.citation: Lymphokine Cytokine Res. 1993 Apr;12(2):109-14
references.pmid: 8391859
references.citation: Nat Genet. 2003 Mar;33(3):388-91
references.pmid: 12590259
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2003 Jun;111(11):1747-55
references.pmid: 12782677
references.citation: Pediatrics. 2001 Aug;108(2):223-9
references.pmid: 11483781
references.citation: Science. 1996 Mar 22;271(5256):1728-30
references.pmid: 8596934
references.citation: Nature. 2003 Jul 24;424(6947):456-61
references.pmid: 12879076
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Mar 29;91(7):2384-9
references.pmid: 8146127
references.citation: J Immunol. 1999 Jul 1;163(1):1-5
references.pmid: 10384090
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2004 Oct;4(10):762-74
references.pmid: 15459668
references.citation: J Virol. 2007 May;81(9):4701-12
references.pmid: 17314173
references.citation: J Immunol. 2005 Nov 15;175(10):6820-8
references.pmid: 16272339
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004 Jan;17(1):1-13
references.pmid: 14726453
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2003 Sep 15;198(6):889-901
references.pmid: 12975455
references.citation: Science. 1996 Mar 22;271(5256):1726-8
references.pmid: 8596933
references.citation: Science. 1996 Nov 1;274(5288):792-5
references.pmid: 8864122
references.citation: J Reprod Immunol. 2007 Jun;74(1-2):1-6
references.pmid: 17010447
references.citation: Semin Neonatol. 2000 Nov;5(4):273-80
references.pmid: 11032710
references.citation: Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2008 Feb;19(1):3-19
references.pmid: 18248767
references.citation: J Immunol. 2008 Dec 15;181(12):8604-12
references.pmid: 19050280
references.citation: J Virol. 2008 Nov;82(22):11073-83
references.pmid: 18614643
references.citation: J Virol. 2006 Oct;80(20):9988-97
references.pmid: 17005677
references.citation: Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1984 May;108(5):403-6
references.pmid: 6324716
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2005 Feb;159(1-2):12-9
references.pmid: 15652398
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2004 Oct 18;200(8):951-5
references.pmid: 15492121
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 1986 Apr;153(4):791-3
references.pmid: 3005439
references.citation: J Virol. 2003 Dec;77(24):13301-14
references.pmid: 14645586
references.citation: Virology. 2004 Apr 25;322(1):158-67
references.pmid: 15063125
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2002 Oct 10;347(15):1151-60
references.pmid: 12374875
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2005 May 16;201(10):1543-53
references.pmid: 15883169
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2003 Aug 4;198(3):513-20
references.pmid: 12900525
references.citation: Pediatr Res. 1982 Jul;16(7):558-60
references.pmid: 6287398
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 1986 Sep;154(3):415-21
references.pmid: 3734492
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1987 Jul;31(7):1006-9
references.pmid: 2821882
references.citation: J Immunol. 2004 Mar 1;172(5):3260-7
references.pmid: 14978134
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1987 Jan 29;316(5):240-4
references.pmid: 3025727
references.citation: Nature. 2001 Nov 22;414(6862):454-7
references.pmid: 11719807
references.citation: J Clin Immunol. 1986 May;6(3):216-24
references.pmid: 3013922
references.citation: Science. 2003 Mar 28;299(5615):2076-9
references.pmid: 12637671
references.citation: Science. 1998 Aug 21;281(5380):1191-3
references.pmid: 9712583
references.citation: Immunity. 2006 Nov;25(5):745-55
references.pmid: 17088085
references.citation: Immunology. 2005 Apr;114(4):531-41
references.pmid: 15804290
references.citation: Science. 2003 Sep 26;301(5641):1925-8
references.pmid: 14512632
references.citation: J Pediatr. 1988 Jun;112(6):976-81
references.pmid: 2836581
references.citation: J Virol. 2008 Jun;82(12):6052-5
references.pmid: 18400863
references.citation: Herpes. 2004 Aug;11(2):31-2
references.pmid: 15955264
references.citation: J Interferon Res. 1983;3(4):461-3
references.pmid: 6323592
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2006 Sep 8;281(36):26188-95
references.pmid: 16849320
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 1995 Sep;25(9):2656-60
references.pmid: 7589141
references.citation: J Immunol. 2006 Nov 15;177(10):7094-102
references.pmid: 17082626
references.citation: J Virol. 2005 Oct;79(20):12893-904
references.pmid: 16188991
references.citation: Curr Opin Microbiol. 2002 Aug;5(4):403-7
references.pmid: 12160860
references.citation: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002 Apr;109(4):581-91
references.pmid: 11941303
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2007 Sep 15;196(6):853-60
references.pmid: 17703415
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2004 Aug 15;190(4):826-34
references.pmid: 15272412
references.citation: Trends Microbiol. 2005 Apr;13(4):164-74
references.pmid: 15817386
references.citation: Immunity. 2008 Aug 15;29(2):182-91
references.pmid: 18701082
references.citation: Virology. 2004 May 1;322(2):231-8
references.pmid: 15110521
references.citation: J Immunol. 2005 Feb 15;174(4):2220-7
references.pmid: 15699155
references.citation: J Virol. 2006 May;80(9):4286-91
references.pmid: 16611887
references.citation: J Immunol. 2005 Nov 15;175(10):6723-32
references.pmid: 16272328
references.citation: Science. 2007 Sep 14;317(5844):1522-7
references.pmid: 17872438
references.citation: Sex Transm Dis. 2008 Jan;35(1):14-8
references.pmid: 18217222
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003 Feb;47(2):494-500
references.pmid: 12543649
references.citation: J Comp Pathol. 2007 Jul;137 Suppl 1:S27-31
references.pmid: 17548093
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2007 Oct 1;204(10):2407-22
references.pmid: 17893200
references.citation: J Virol. 2001 Jul;75(14):6705-9
references.pmid: 11413339
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 May 4;101(18):7064-9
references.pmid: 15103024
references.citation: J Immunol. 1998 May 1;160(9):4217-24
references.pmid: 9574522
references.citation: Blood. 2005 Jun 15;105(12):4715-21
references.pmid: 15731180
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2004 May 1;189(9):1619-27
references.pmid: 15116298