The control of food intake of free-living humans: putting the pieces back together.
The control of food intake has been studied using reductionism; by separately investigating environmental, physiological, and genetic variables. The general model of intake regulation attempts to reassemble the pieces into an organized whole. It postulates that intake is influenced by sets of both physiological factors which have negative feedback loops to intake and environmental factors which do not. Data and behavioral genetic analysis on a number of environmental, psychological, dietary, and social variables demonstrate that they have large impacts on the intake of free-living humans in their everyday environments and their magnitude and impact on intake are influenced by heredity. Recent evidence of built environment influences on activity and intake further indicate the profound influence of environmental circumstances on both intake and expenditure. A computer simulation of the general model of intake regulation demonstrates that the model predicts different maintained levels of intake and body weight depending upon the external environment and that change in the environment can produce new sustained levels. It is suggested that eating is influenced by a myriad of physiological and non-physiological factors and that total intake results from the integral of their influences. It is concluded that recombining the components broken down in the reductionistic process results in a functional whole that can well describe human behavior in natural environments. The paper represents an invited review by a symposium, award winner or keynote speaker at the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior [SSIB] Annual Meeting in Portland, July 2009.
de Castro
John M
JM
College of Humanities & Social Sciences, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX 77341, United States. jdecastro@shsu.edu
D003198:Computer Simulation; D004435:Eating / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology*; D004777:Environment; D005247:Feeding Behavior / Q000502:physiology* / Q000523:psychology; D006801:Humans; D008960:Models, Psychological
Am J Clin Nutr. 1991 Aug;54(2):291-5
1858692
Physiol Behav. 1993 Apr;53(4):777-82
8511185
Physiol Behav. 2000 Jan;68(3):271-7
10716535
Metabolism. 1992 Jul;41(7):744-53
1619993
Am J Epidemiol. 1998 Jun 1;147(11):1081-6
9620052
Physiol Behav. 1999 Aug;67(2):249-58
10477057
Epidemiol Rev. 2007;29:129-43
17533172
Milbank Q. 2009 Mar;87(1):123-54
19298418
Physiol Behav. 1988;43(2):159-65
3212051
Eur J Clin Nutr. 1991 Dec;45(12):569-81
1810719
J Nutr. 2003 Mar;133 Suppl 3:895S-920S
12612176
Physiol Behav. 1986;38(1):25-9
3786499
Am J Clin Nutr. 1989 Aug;50(2):237-47
2756911
J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008 Nov;93(11 Suppl 1):S37-50
18987269
Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 1988;58(1):119-34
3384575
Physiol Behav. 2000 Aug-Sep;70(3-4):343-50
11006433
J Pers Soc Psychol. 1997 Jan;72(1):196-206
9008381
Physiol Behav. 1987;40(4):437-46
3628541
Am J Clin Nutr. 1992 Jul;56(1):29-35
1609757
Physiol Behav. 1999 Apr;66(2):223-32
10336148
JAMA. 2001 Sep 12;286(10):1195-200
11559264
Physiol Behav. 1995 Sep;58(3):551-8
8587964
Br J Nutr. 2009 Oct;102(8):1228-37
19650955
Physiol Behav. 2006 Jan 30;87(1):192-8
16310814
Am J Clin Nutr. 1989 Feb;49(2):320-5
2916451
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2002 Aug;26(5):581-95
12367591
Physiol Behav. 1995 Feb;57(2):287-95
7716205
Appetite. 1994 Oct;23(2):179-92
7864611
Eur J Clin Nutr. 1997 Dec;51(12):856-63
9426361
J Psychopharmacol. 1999;13(4 Suppl 1):S5-9
10667450
Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003 Mar;57(3):455-63
12627183
BMJ. 1995 Oct 14;311(7011):986-9
7580640
Am J Clin Nutr. 1990 Sep;52(3):421-5
2393004
JAMA. 1999 Oct 27;282(16):1519-22
10546690
J Physiol. 1966 Jan;182(1):144-9
5937408
J Physiol (Paris). 1968 Mar-Apr;60(2):143-54
5675107
Nutr Rev. 2001 Aug;59(8 Pt 1):247-58
11518179
Eur J Clin Nutr. 1991 Dec;45(12):583-99
1810720
Nutrition. 2004 Sep;20(9):821-38
15325695
Br J Nutr. 1997 Jun;77(6):833-51
9227182
Am J Clin Nutr. 2001 Jun;73(6):1010-8
11382653
Physiol Behav. 1993 Oct;54(4):633-9
8248339
J Pers. 1996 Sep;64(3):577-91
8776880
Physiol Behav. 1985 Sep;35(3):329-35
4070404
Br J Nutr. 2007 Nov;98(5):1077-83
17537291
Am J Clin Nutr. 1998 Mar;67(3 Suppl):535S-541S
9497166
Psychol Bull. 1986 Mar;99(2):247-62
3515384
Physiol Behav. 1992 Jan;51(1):121-5
1741437
Appetite. 1989 Apr;12(2):83-94
2764557
Nature. 2000 Apr 6;404(6778):601-4
10766242
J Nutr. 1998 Jan;128(1):61-7
9430603
Nutr Res. 2001 Jul;21(7):935-945
11446977
Physiol Behav. 1981 Oct;27(4):621-3
7323164
Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999 Nov;31(11 Suppl):S509-14
10593520
BMJ. 1990 Mar 17;300(6726):708-12
2386561
Nutrition. 2001 Sep;17(9):713-20
11527657
Physiol Behav. 2005 Sep 15;86(1-2):32-45
16115659
Science. 1998 May 29;280(5368):1371-4
9603719
Nutrition. 2005 Apr;21(4):446-55
15811764
Appetite. 1990 Oct;15(2):89-101
2268142
J Physiol. 1975 Feb;245(1):209-25
1127608
Physiol Behav. 1993 Oct;54(4):677-87
8248345
J Nutr. 2004 Feb;134(2):335-41
14747669
Annu Rev Psychol. 2008;59:55-92
18154499
Physiol Behav. 2004 Jul;81(5):765-71
15234182
J Nutr. 2004 Jan;134(1):104-11
14704301