Epidemiology and risk factors for kidney cancer.
After more than two decades of rising rates, in recent years the total kidney cancer incidence worldwide has shown signs of stabilizing, or even decreasing. In adults, kidney cancer consists of renal cell carcinoma (RCC), the predominant form, and renal transitional cell carcinoma (RTCC); these types primarily arise in the renal parenchyma and renal pelvis, respectively. Although temporal trends by kidney cancer type are not well established worldwide, incidence of RCC in the US has continued to rise, mainly for early-stage tumors, while that of RTCC has declined, and total kidney cancer mortality rates have leveled. Stabilization of kidney cancer mortality rates has also been reported in Europe. These trends are consistent with reports of increasing incidental diagnoses and a downward shift in tumor stage and size in clinical series. The changing prevalence of known risk factors for RCC, including cigarette smoking, obesity, and hypertension, is also likely to affect incidence trends, although their relative impact may differ between populations. Accumulating evidence suggests an etiologic role in RCC for physical activity, alcohol consumption, occupational exposure to trichloroethylene, and high parity among women, but further research is needed into the potential causal effects of these factors. Genetic factors and their interaction with environmental exposures are believed to influence risk of developing RCC, but a limited number of studies using candidate-gene approaches have not produced conclusive results. Large consortium efforts employing genome-wide scanning technology are underway, which hold promise for novel discoveries in renal carcinogenesis.
Chow
Wong-Ho
WH
Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, US Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892-7240, USA. choww@mail.nih.gov <choww@mail.nih.gov>
Dong
Linda M
LM
Devesa
Susan S
SS
D002292:Carcinoma, Renal Cell / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000473:pathology; D002295:Carcinoma, Transitional Cell / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000473:pathology; D004032:Diet; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects; D005260:Female; D020022:Genetic Predisposition to Disease; D014943:Global Health; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000150:complications / Q000453:epidemiology; D015994:Incidence; D007680:Kidney Neoplasms / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology / Q000473:pathology; D009043:Motor Activity; D009765:Obesity / Q000150:complications / Q000453:epidemiology; D016273:Occupational Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects; D010298:Parity; D011247:Pregnancy; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects
PLoS One. 2009 Sep 15;4(9):e7013
19753122
Int J Cancer. 2005 Mar 10;114(1):101-8
15523697
Cancer Causes Control. 2008 Mar;19(2):125-34
17992578
Br J Cancer. 2002 May 6;86(9):1425-9
11986775
Carcinogenesis. 2010 Jan;31(1):100-10
19934210
Am J Epidemiol. 2001 May 1;153(9):851-9
11323315
J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009 May 6;101(9):618-21
19401554
J Occup Med Toxicol. 2007 Nov 12;2:13
17997830
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009 Jun;18(6):1730-9
19505906
Int J Cancer. 2009 Nov 15;125(10):2342-8
19521957
Int J Cancer. 2004 Feb 10;108(4):600-5
14696127
Cancer. 2008 Jul 1;113(1):78-83
18491376
Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Nov;90(5):1222-9
19793849
Clin Cancer Res. 2009 Oct 1;15(19):6250-7
19773379
Environ Health Perspect. 2006 Sep;114(9):1471-8
16966107
Cancer J. 2008 Sep-Oct;14(5):288-301
18836333
Cancer Causes Control. 2002 Apr;13(3):287-93
12020111
J Urol. 2008 Jun;179(6):2416-21
18433782
Cancer Causes Control. 2005 Nov;16(9):1099-106
16184476
Clin Cancer Res. 2008 Aug 1;14(15):4726-34
18676741
Urol Res. 1992;20(2):111-5
1553788
Int J Cancer. 2006 Jun 15;118(12):3133-9
16425278
J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999 May 19;91(10):854-61
10340905
Am J Epidemiol. 2008 Jul 15;168(2):149-57
18468990
Am J Epidemiol. 2008 Aug 1;168(3):268-77
18544571
Lancet. 2005 Jan 15-21;365(9455):217-23
15652604
Ann Fam Med. 2008 Jan-Feb;6(1):69-77
18195317
J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003 Aug 20;95(16):1211-8
12928346
J Clin Oncol. 2005 Jul 20;23(21):4742-54
16034050
J Clin Oncol. 2006 Jan 20;24(3):476-83
16421424
Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009 Dec;4(12):1998-2007
19875768
Am J Epidemiol. 2009 Apr 15;169(8):977-89
19258487
J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007 May 16;99(10):801-10
17505075
Semin Oncol. 2006 Oct;33(5):544-51
17045083
Carcinogenesis. 2009 Apr;30(4):706-10
19237609
J Hypertens. 2005 Nov;23(11):1997-2004
16208141
Lancet. 2008 Feb 16;371(9612):569-78
18280327
Nat Clin Pract Urol. 2008 Feb;5(2):105-12
18259188
BJU Int. 2008 Apr;101(8):949-58
18241251
IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum. 1995;63:33-477
9139128
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009 Apr;18(4):1174-82
19293308
Maturitas. 2007 Oct 20;58(2):156-63
17822863
Nat Rev Cancer. 2004 Aug;4(8):579-91
15286738
Health Phys. 2008 Jan;94(1):1-17
18091147
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2006 Dec;15(12):2445-52
17164369
PLoS One. 2009 Mar 24;4(3):e4895
19603096
JAMA. 2006 Dec 20;296(23):2823-31
17179459
Nat Clin Pract Urol. 2007 Apr;4(4):205-17
17415353
Am J Kidney Dis. 2010 Mar;55(3):590-8
19962803
Cancer. 2000 Aug 1;89(3):630-9
10931463
Arch Intern Med. 2006 Sep 25;166(17):1871-7
17000944
Hum Pathol. 2009 Jan;40(1):10-29
19027455
Am J Epidemiol. 2007 Oct 15;166(8):932-40
17656615
IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum. 2004;83:1-1438
15285078
Int J Cancer. 2007 Nov 15;121(10):2246-53
17583573
Adv Exp Med Biol. 2005;561:1-19
16438285
Int J Cancer. 2004 Jan 1;108(1):115-21
14618625
Int J Cancer. 2006 Feb 1;118(3):728-38
16094628
Carcinogenesis. 2010 Apr;31(4):614-20
20047954
Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2005 Sep 1;207(2):179-86
16102569
J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008 Aug 6;100(15):1104-12
18664653
N Engl J Med. 2000 Nov 2;343(18):1305-11
11058675
Br J Cancer. 2007 Jul 2;97(1):112-4
17519895
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009 Jan;18(1):337-40
19124517
BMJ. 2007 Dec 1;335(7630):1134
17986716
Int J Cancer. 2010 Mar 15;126(6):1504-12
19685494
Annu Rev Pathol. 2007;2:145-73
18039096
Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009 Mar;18(3):801-7
19240244
Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2009 Jul;9(7):975-87
19589036
Am J Epidemiol. 2009 May 15;169(10):1243-50
19329527
Hypertension. 2009 Nov;54(5):1014-20
19786647
Br J Cancer. 2007 Mar 12;96(5):845-9
17311018
Kidney Int. 2005 Feb;67(2):647-52
15673312
Environ Mol Mutagen. 2008 Mar;49(2):142-54
17973308
Cancer Detect Prev. 2009;32(5-6):340-51
19303221
Int J Cancer. 2009 Aug 15;125(4):982-7
19415751
Environ Mol Mutagen. 2009 Jan;50(1):68-77
19031419
J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2006 Dec;102(1-5):156-62
17113979
Am J Epidemiol. 2008 Feb 15;167(4):438-46
18048375
Lancet. 2005 Aug 20-26;366(9486):649-59
16112301
Cancer Res. 2009 Oct 15;69(20):8001-8
19808960
J Clin Oncol. 2009 Aug 10;27(23):3737-41
19597028
Adv Urol. 2008;:310694
19165347
BJU Int. 2010 May;105(9):1260-5
19818071
J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008 Dec 3;100(23):1695-706
19033572
Environ Health Perspect. 2006 Sep;114(9):1445-9
16966103
Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Dec 15;160(12):1159-67
15583368
IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum Suppl. 1987;7:1-440
3482203
Med Hypotheses. 2006;66(4):732-5
16364563
Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2009 Oct;24(10):3225-31
19589786