title: Facial expression recognition, fear conditioning, and startle modulation in female subjects with conduct disorder.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Recent behavioral and psychophysiological studies have provided converging evidence for emotional dysfunction in conduct disorder (CD). Most of these studies focused on male subjects and little is known about emotional processing in female subjects with CD. Our primary aim was to characterize explicit and implicit aspects of emotion function to determine whether deficits in these processes are present in girls with CD.
  
  
  METHODS
  Female adolescents with CD (n = 25) and control subjects with no history of severe antisocial behavior and no current psychiatric disorder (n = 30) completed tasks measuring facial expression and facial identity recognition, differential autonomic conditioning, and affective modulation of the startle reflex by picture valence.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Compared with control subjects, participants with CD showed impaired recognition of anger and disgust but no differences in facial identity recognition. Impaired sadness recognition was observed in CD participants high in psychopathic traits relative to those lower in psychopathic traits. Participants with CD displayed reduced skin conductance responses to an aversive unconditioned stimulus and impaired autonomic discrimination between the conditioned stimuli, indicating impaired fear conditioning. Participants with CD also showed reduced startle magnitudes across picture valence types, but there were no significant group differences in the pattern of affective modulation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Adolescent female subjects with CD exhibited deficits in explicit and implicit tests of emotion function and reduced autonomic responsiveness across different output systems. There were, however, no differences in emotional reactivity. These findings suggest that emotional recognition and learning are impaired in female subjects with CD, consistent with results previously obtained in male subjects with CD.
authors.affiliation: Developmental Psychiatry Section, Department of Psychiatry, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK. gff22@cam.ac.uk
authors.forename: Graeme
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Fairchild
authors.forename: Yvette
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Stobbe
authors.forename: Stephanie H M
authors.initials: SH
authors.lastname: van Goozen
authors.forename: Andrew J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Calder
authors.forename: Ian M
authors.initials: IM
authors.lastname: Goodyer
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D003214:Conditioning, Classical; D019955:Conduct Disorder / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology*; D004644:Emotions; D005149:Facial Expression; D005239:Fear; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D016555:Matched-Pair Analysis; D021641:Recognition, Psychology / Q000502:physiology; D012016:Reference Values; D013216:Reflex, Startle / Q000502:physiology*; D012938:Social Perception
references.citation: Biol Psychiatry. 2008 Feb 1;63(3):279-85
references.pmid: 17765205
references.citation: Horm Behav. 2008 Jan;53(1):90-5
references.pmid: 17976599
references.citation: Science. 1995 Aug 25;269(5227):1115-8
references.pmid: 7652558
references.citation: Psychol Bull. 2007 Jan;133(1):149-82
references.pmid: 17201574
references.citation: Dev Psychopathol. 1999 Winter;11(1):101-26
references.pmid: 10208358
references.citation: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007 Oct;32(10):2190-8
references.pmid: 17314917
references.citation: Am J Psychiatry. 2010 Jan;167(1):56-60
references.pmid: 19917592
references.citation: J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2006 Mar-Apr;47(3-4):262-76
references.pmid: 16492259
references.citation: Psychophysiology. 1996 Mar;33(2):103-11
references.pmid: 8851238
references.citation: J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993 Nov;32(6):1127-34
references.pmid: 8282656
references.citation: Behav Neurosci. 2006 Feb;120(1):24-39
references.pmid: 16492114
references.citation: J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997 Jul;36(7):980-8
references.pmid: 9204677
references.citation: J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998 Jun;37(6):594-601
references.pmid: 9628079
references.citation: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2003 Mar 29;358(1431):561-72
references.pmid: 12689381
references.citation: J Abnorm Psychol. 2002 Nov;111(4):610-9
references.pmid: 12428774
references.citation: Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Jul;155(7):862-70
references.pmid: 9659848
references.citation: Psychol Med. 2006 Nov;36(11):1563-9
references.pmid: 16893483
references.citation: Behav Neurosci. 2004 Apr;118(2):429-37
references.pmid: 15113270
references.citation: Psychophysiology. 1994 Jul;31(4):319-30
references.pmid: 10690912
references.citation: J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2004 May;45(4):884-92
references.pmid: 15056318
references.citation: Psychophysiology. 1997 Jan;34(1):97-107
references.pmid: 9009813
references.citation: Br J Psychiatry. 2006 Sep;189:280-1
references.pmid: 16946366
references.citation: J Abnorm Psychol. 1993 Feb;102(1):82-92
references.pmid: 8436703
references.citation: Child Dev. 1987 Jun;58(3):829-41
references.pmid: 3608653
references.citation: J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2001 Dec;29(6):491-8
references.pmid: 11761283
references.citation: J Abnorm Psychol. 1993 Aug;102(3):453-65
references.pmid: 8408958
references.citation: Behav Sci Law. 2003;21(6):737-70
references.pmid: 14696029
references.citation: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005 Jul;62(7):799-805
references.pmid: 15997022
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1995 Oct;15(10):6846-55
references.pmid: 7472442
references.citation: J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1990 Jul;29(4):611-9
references.pmid: 2387797
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2008;32(3):454-65
references.pmid: 17915324
references.citation: J Abnorm Psychol. 2006 Nov;115(4):815-20
references.pmid: 17100539
references.citation: Psychol Methods. 2003 Dec;8(4):492-496
references.pmid: 14664684
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1995 Sep;15(9):5879-91
references.pmid: 7666173
references.citation: Brain. 1996 Dec;119 ( Pt 6):1991-2000
references.pmid: 9010003
references.citation: J Abnorm Psychol. 2000 Aug;109(3):373-85
references.pmid: 11016107
references.citation: J Cogn Neurosci. 2001 Aug 15;13(6):721-9
references.pmid: 11564317
references.citation: J Abnorm Psychol. 2000 May;109(2):290-8
references.pmid: 10895567
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Jun 11;99(12):8448-53
references.pmid: 12034876
references.citation: J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009 May;50(5):627-36
references.pmid: 19432683
references.citation: Psychophysiology. 2002 Jul;39(4):505-18
references.pmid: 12212643
references.citation: J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1991 Nov;30(6):973-81
references.pmid: 1757447
references.citation: Clin Neurophysiol. 2003 Sep;114(9):1557-79
references.pmid: 12948786
references.citation: J Abnorm Psychol. 1988 Nov;97(4):487-91
references.pmid: 3204235
references.citation: Am J Psychiatry. 1987 May;144(5):584-9
references.pmid: 3495187
references.citation: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001 Aug;58(8):737-45
references.pmid: 11483139
references.citation: J Abnorm Psychol. 1971 Jun;77(3):223-35
references.pmid: 5556930
references.citation: Emotion. 2002 Dec;2(4):398-411
references.pmid: 12899372
references.citation: J Abnorm Psychol. 1957 Jul;55(1):6-10
references.pmid: 13462652
references.citation: Neuropsychologia. 2002;40(10):1675-89
references.pmid: 11992656
references.citation: Emotion. 2001 Sep;1(3):276-98
references.pmid: 12934687