title: Biology and biotechnology of Trichoderma.
abstract: Fungi of the genus Trichoderma are soilborne, green-spored ascomycetes that can be found all over the world. They have been studied with respect to various characteristics and applications and are known as successful colonizers of their habitats, efficiently fighting their competitors. Once established, they launch their potent degradative machinery for decomposition of the often heterogeneous substrate at hand. Therefore, distribution and phylogeny, defense mechanisms, beneficial as well as deleterious interaction with hosts, enzyme production and secretion, sexual development, and response to environmental conditions such as nutrients and light have been studied in great detail with many species of this genus, thus rendering Trichoderma one of the best studied fungi with the genome of three species currently available. Efficient biocontrol strains of the genus are being developed as promising biological fungicides, and their weaponry for this function also includes secondary metabolites with potential applications as novel antibiotics. The cellulases produced by Trichoderma reesei, the biotechnological workhorse of the genus, are important industrial products, especially with respect to production of second generation biofuels from cellulosic waste. Genetic engineering not only led to significant improvements in industrial processes but also to intriguing insights into the biology of these fungi and is now complemented by the availability of a sexual cycle in T. reesei/Hypocrea jecorina, which significantly facilitates both industrial and basic research. This review aims to give a broad overview on the qualities and versatility of the best studied Trichoderma species and to highlight intriguing findings as well as promising applications.
authors.affiliation: Research Area Gene Technology and Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9/166-5, 1060, Vienna, Austria. andre.schuster@tuwien.ac.at
authors.forename: André
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Schuster
authors.forename: Monika
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Schmoll
mesh_terms: D005656:Fungal Proteins / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D015966:Gene Expression Regulation, Fungal; D007218:Industrial Microbiology; D014242:Trichoderma / Q000145:classification / Q000201:enzymology / Q000235:genetics* / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D005656:Fungal Proteins
references.citation: Experientia. 1983 May 15;39(5):528-30
references.pmid: 6406260
references.citation: Fungal Genet Biol. 2005 Sep;42(9):749-60
references.pmid: 15964222
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 1979 Sep;139(3):761-9
references.pmid: 39061
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004 May;70(5):3073-81
references.pmid: 15128569
references.citation: Curr Genet. 2005 Aug;48(2):126-33
references.pmid: 15959723
references.citation: Mycobiology. 2006 Sep;34(3):111-3
references.pmid: 24039481
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 1999 Mar;65(3):1061-70
references.pmid: 10049864
references.citation: Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci. 2006;71(3 Pt B):953-61
references.pmid: 17390844
references.citation: Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung. 2003;50(2-3):105-17
references.pmid: 12894482
references.citation: Curr Genet. 1993 Oct;24(4):349-56
references.pmid: 8252645
references.citation: Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2010 Feb;85(5):1259-77
references.pmid: 19915832
references.citation: J Environ Sci Health B. 2008 Mar-Apr;43(3):237-40
references.pmid: 18368544
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2008 May 15;46(10):e116-8
references.pmid: 18419477
references.citation: J Biotechnol. 1994 Nov 15;37(3):193-200
references.pmid: 7765573
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004 Jan;70(1):542-9
references.pmid: 14711686
references.citation: Mycol Res. 2005 Jun;109(Pt 6):658-60
references.pmid: 16080389
references.citation: Plant Physiol. 2006 Nov;142(3):1169-79
references.pmid: 16950863
references.citation: Fungal Genet Biol. 2010 Nov;47(11):909-16
references.pmid: 20466064
references.citation: BMC Genomics. 2009 Nov 30;10:567
references.pmid: 19948043
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2003 Aug 22;278(34):31988-97
references.pmid: 12788920
references.citation: Mycologia. 2002 Jan-Feb;94(1):146-70
references.pmid: 21156486
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007 Nov;73(21):7048-58
references.pmid: 17827332
references.citation: Biotechnol Bioeng Symp. 1976;(6):9-20
references.pmid: 826291
references.citation: Eukaryot Cell. 2007 Dec;6(12):2332-42
references.pmid: 17933910
references.citation: Nature. 2008 Aug 14;454(7206):841-5
references.pmid: 18704079
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2009 Nov;300(1):58-67
references.pmid: 19735461
references.citation: Acta Biol Hung. 2005;56(1-2):137-50
references.pmid: 15813222
references.citation: Fungal Genet Biol. 2005 Oct;42(10):813-28
references.pmid: 16154784
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2009 Oct;299(2):135-42
references.pmid: 19702879
references.citation: Biotechnol Biofuels. 2008 Dec 23;1(1):18
references.pmid: 19105830
references.citation: Mycoses. 2008 Mar;51(2):95-8
references.pmid: 18254744
references.citation: Chem Biodivers. 2008 May;5(5):671-80
references.pmid: 18493954
references.citation: Eukaryot Cell. 2003 Jun;2(3):446-55
references.pmid: 12796289
references.citation: Fungal Genet Biol. 1998 Feb;23(1):34-44
references.pmid: 9501476
references.citation: Mol Plant Microbe Interact. 2009 Mar;22(3):291-301
references.pmid: 19245323
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2010 Feb;303(1):26-32
references.pmid: 20002748
references.citation: Curr Genet. 2005 Jun;47(6):381-8
references.pmid: 15856359
references.citation: J Microbiol Methods. 2010 May;81(2):187-93
references.pmid: 20302890
references.citation: Int Microbiol. 2003 Sep;6(3):191-9
references.pmid: 12898399
references.citation: Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2004 Apr;39(2):214-28
references.pmid: 15041150
references.citation: Curr Genet. 2005 Sep;48(3):204-11
references.pmid: 16091959
references.citation: J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Oct 19;53(21):8190-6
references.pmid: 16218663
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2005 Mar;71(3):1591-7
references.pmid: 15746364
references.citation: Microbiology (Reading). 2007 Jun;153(Pt 6):1734-1742
references.pmid: 17526831
references.citation: Chem Biodivers. 2007 Jun;4(6):1052-67
references.pmid: 17589876
references.citation: Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai). 2008 Feb;40(2):158-65
references.pmid: 18235978
references.citation: Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2009 Jun;83(4):649-57
references.pmid: 19205687
references.citation: J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 2008 May;35(5):377-391
references.pmid: 18338189
references.citation: Biotechnology (N Y). 1993 May;11(5):591-5
references.pmid: 7763606
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Sep 22;106(38):16151-6
references.pmid: 19805272
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 1997;139(3):151-5
references.pmid: 16283454
references.citation: J Biotechnol. 1991 Jan;17(1):35-49
references.pmid: 1367015
references.citation: Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung. 2005;52(2):169-84
references.pmid: 16003937
references.citation: Gene Regul Syst Bio. 2007 Nov 08;1:227-34
references.pmid: 19936091
references.citation: Microbiology (Reading). 2007 Oct;153(Pt 10):3417-3437
references.pmid: 17906141
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004 Mar;10 Suppl 1:48-66
references.pmid: 14748802
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2002 Dec 1;35(11):1360-7
references.pmid: 12439799
references.citation: BMC Plant Biol. 2007 Jul 30;7:41
references.pmid: 17663762
references.citation: Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom. 2008 Jun;22(12):1889-98
references.pmid: 18470867
references.citation: Microbiology (Reading). 2008 Apr;154(Pt 4):1229-1241
references.pmid: 18375815
references.citation: Lett Appl Microbiol. 2009 Jun;48(6):705-11
references.pmid: 19413806
references.citation: Biotechnol Biofuels. 2009 Sep 01;2:19
references.pmid: 19723296
references.citation: Inflamm Res. 1998;47 Suppl 1:S5-6
references.pmid: 9561390
references.citation: Curr Genet. 2007 May;51(5):331-42
references.pmid: 17415567
references.citation: Trends Biotechnol. 2005 Sep;23(9):468-74
references.pmid: 15967521
references.citation: Experientia. 1984 Nov 15;40(11):1189-97
references.pmid: 6500005
references.citation: J Med Microbiol. 2006 Jan;55(Pt 1):31-35
references.pmid: 16388027
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006 Nov;58(5):1058-61
references.pmid: 16987867
references.citation: Chem Biodivers. 2007 Jun;4(6):1068-82
references.pmid: 17589877
references.citation: Curr Genet. 2009 Feb;55(1):81-91
references.pmid: 19116716
references.citation: Nat Prod Rep. 2007 Oct;24(5):1128-41
references.pmid: 17898900
references.citation: Phytopathology. 2007 Apr;97(4):532-7
references.pmid: 18943294
references.citation: Biotechnol Lett. 2009 Apr;31(4):531-6
references.pmid: 19116694
references.citation: Adv Appl Microbiol. 2004;56:313-30
references.pmid: 15566984
references.citation: Mol Microbiol. 2007 Nov;66(4):890-900
references.pmid: 17924946
references.citation: Curr Biol. 2007 Feb 20;17(4):R115-9
references.pmid: 17307040
references.citation: Phytopathology. 2006 Feb;96(2):190-4
references.pmid: 18943924
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Dec 23;100(26):15965-70
references.pmid: 14673101
references.citation: Acta Biochim Pol. 2008;55(3):447-56
references.pmid: 18797519
references.citation: J Biotechnol. 2009 Jan 15;139(2):146-51
references.pmid: 19027803
references.citation: J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2008 Oct;9(10):753-63
references.pmid: 18837102
references.citation: Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci. 2007;72(1):219-23
references.pmid: 18018891
references.citation: BMC Genomics. 2007 Dec 04;8:449
references.pmid: 18053205
references.citation: Eukaryot Cell. 2002 Aug;1(4):594-605
references.pmid: 12456007
references.citation: J Agric Food Chem. 2008 Aug 27;56(16):6914-22
references.pmid: 18642836
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2006 Apr;257(1):145-51
references.pmid: 16553845
references.citation: Microbiology (Reading). 2007 Jul;153(Pt 7):2137-2147
references.pmid: 17600058
references.citation: J Pept Sci. 2003 Nov-Dec;9(11-12):666-78
references.pmid: 14658788
references.citation: Fungal Genet Biol. 2007 Dec;44(12):1355-67
references.pmid: 17881256
references.citation: Biotechnol Adv. 2009 Nov-Dec;27(6):833-848
references.pmid: 19577626
references.citation: Eur J Biochem. 2002 Sep;269(17):4202-11
references.pmid: 12199698
references.citation: BMC Genomics. 2008 Jul 11;9:327
references.pmid: 18620557
references.citation: Fungal Genet Biol. 1996 Jun;20(2):105-14
references.pmid: 8810515
references.citation: Stud Mycol. 2009;63:1-91
references.pmid: 19826500
references.citation: Curr Opin Biotechnol. 1995 Oct;6(5):534-7
references.pmid: 7579664
references.citation: Curr Genet. 2008 Dec;54(6):283-99
references.pmid: 18836726
references.citation: Curr Genet. 1990 Jul;18(1):71-6
references.pmid: 2245476
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2010 Apr;76(7):2345-52
references.pmid: 20154111
references.citation: Fungal Genet Biol. 2007 Nov;44(11):1123-33
references.pmid: 17509915
references.citation: Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 2002 Aug;81(1-4):549-56
references.pmid: 12448750
references.citation: Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung. 2004;51(3):283-95
references.pmid: 15571068
references.citation: Lett Appl Microbiol. 2006 Aug;43(2):143-8
references.pmid: 16869896
references.citation: Int J Biol Sci. 2009 Sep 04;5(6):578-95
references.pmid: 19774110
references.citation: Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2003 Jan;60(5):515-22
references.pmid: 12536250
references.citation: Fungal Genet Biol. 2003 Apr;38(3):310-9
references.pmid: 12684020
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2006 Mar;72(3):2126-33
references.pmid: 16517662
references.citation: Gene. 1987;61(2):155-64
references.pmid: 3127274
references.citation: Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung. 2003;50(2-3):125-45
references.pmid: 12894484
references.citation: Fungal Genet Biol. 2001 Aug;33(3):155-71
references.pmid: 11495573
references.citation: Plant Dis. 2000 Apr;84(4):377-393
references.pmid: 30841158
references.citation: Microbiology (Reading). 2008 Nov;154(Pt 11):3447-3459
references.pmid: 18957598
references.citation: Eukaryot Cell. 2005 Dec;4(12):1998-2007
references.pmid: 16339718
references.citation: Genome Res. 2001 Jul;11(7):1246-55
references.pmid: 11435407
references.citation: J Appl Microbiol. 2001 Nov;91(5):806-13
references.pmid: 11722657
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007 Nov;73(22):7415-26
references.pmid: 17827333
references.citation: Phytopathology. 2006 Feb;96(2):181-5
references.pmid: 18943922
references.citation: Curr Genet. 1994 Jun;25(6):567-70
references.pmid: 8082210
references.citation: Plant Physiol. 2008 Jun;147(2):779-89
references.pmid: 18400936
references.citation: Int J Biochem. 1993 Nov;25(11):1637-51
references.pmid: 8288033
references.citation: Nat Biotechnol. 2008 May;26(5):553-60
references.pmid: 18454138
references.citation: PLoS One. 2010 Feb 12;5(2):e9191
references.pmid: 20169200
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Aug 18;106(33):13909-14
references.pmid: 19667182
references.citation: Annu Rev Phytopathol. 2010;48:21-43
references.pmid: 20192757
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2005 Oct;71(10):6241-6
references.pmid: 16204544
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 2000 Jan;149(1):21-5
references.pmid: 11227850
references.citation: Curr Genet. 2006 Nov;50(5):307-21
references.pmid: 17008992
references.citation: Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol. 2007;108:95-120
references.pmid: 17594064
references.citation: Mol Plant Microbe Interact. 2006 Aug;19(8):838-53
references.pmid: 16903350
references.citation: Phytopathology. 2006 Feb;96(2):195-206
references.pmid: 18943925
references.citation: Eukaryot Cell. 2009 Mar;8(3):410-20
references.pmid: 19136572
references.citation: BMC Microbiol. 2009 Oct 13;9:217
references.pmid: 19825185
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 1997;137(2):115-24
references.pmid: 16284721
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Jul 23;93(15):7755-60
references.pmid: 8755548
references.citation: Curr Genet. 2004 Feb;45(1):54-60
references.pmid: 14586554
references.citation: BMC Genomics. 2008 Sep 20;9:430
references.pmid: 18803869
references.citation: Toxicon. 1999 Jan;37(1):77-83
references.pmid: 9920482
references.citation: Int Microbiol. 2001 Mar;4(1):1-4
references.pmid: 11770814
references.citation: Int Microbiol. 2004 Dec;7(4):249-60
references.pmid: 15666245
references.citation: Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung. 2005;52(3-4):341-50
references.pmid: 16400874