title: Opioids, pain, the brain, and hyperkatifeia: a framework for the rational use of opioids for pain.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Opioids have relieved more human suffering than any other medication, but their use is still fraught with significant concerns of misuse, abuse, and addiction. This theoretical article explores the hypothesis that opioid misuse in the context of pain management produces a hypersensitivity to emotional distress, termed hyperkatifeia.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In the misuse of opioids, neural substrates that mediate positive emotional states (brain reward systems) are compromised, and substrates mediating negative emotional states (brain stress systems) are enhanced. A reflection and early marker of such a nonhomeostatic state may be the development of opioid-induced hyperkatifeia, defined as the increased intensity of the constellation of negative emotional/motivational symptoms and signs observed during withdrawal from drugs of abuse (derived from the Greek "katifeia" for dejection or negative emotional state) and is most likely to occur in subjects in whom the opioid produces a break with homeostasis and less likely to occur when the opioid is restoring homeostasis, such as in effective pain treatment. When the opioid appropriately relieves pain, opponent processes are not engaged. However, if the opioid is administered in excess of need because of overdose, pharmacokinetic variables, or treating an individual without pain, then the body will react to that perturbation by engaging opponent processes in the domains of both pain (hyperalgesia) and negative emotional states (hyperkatifeia).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Repeated engagement of opponent processes without time for the brain's emotional systems to reestablish homeostasis will further drive changes in emotional processes that may produce opioid abuse or addiction, particularly in individuals with genetic or environmental vulnerability.
authors.affiliation: Pain Clinic, Scripps Memorial Hospital, La Jolla, California, USA.
authors.forename: Joseph
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Shurman
authors.forename: George F
authors.initials: GF
authors.lastname: Koob
authors.forename: Howard B
authors.initials: HB
authors.lastname: Gutstein
mesh_terms: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D001921:Brain / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology*; D004644:Emotions; D006706:Homeostasis; D006801:Humans; D006930:Hyperalgesia / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology; D009293:Opioid-Related Disorders / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology; D010146:Pain / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000523:psychology; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid