title: Workplace substance-use norms as predictors of employee substance use and impairment: a survey of U.S. workers.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Although much research has explored the relation of substance-use norms to substance use among college students, much less research has focused on employed adults and the workplace as a social context for social norms regarding substance use. This study explored the relation of descriptive and injunctive workplace substance-use norms regarding alcohol and illicit drug use to employee substance use. Both alcohol use and illicit drug use were explored, as well as overall and context-specific use and impairment.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data were collected from a national probability sample of 2,430 employed adults (55% female) using a random-digit-dial telephone survey. Overall employee alcohol and illicit drug use were assessed, as well as use before work, use and impairment during the workday, and use after work.
  
  
  RESULTS
  After controlling for a number of potential covariates, injunctive norms regarding workplace alcohol and illicit drug use predicted substance use and impairment overall and across all contexts of use. Descriptive norms predicted alcohol and illicit drug use before and during work, as well as workplace impairment.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study shows that both workplace injunctive and descriptive norms are important predictors of substance use in the U.S. workforce. There were two general patterns, however, that were consistent across both alcohol and illicit drug use. Social norms marketing campaigns, therefore, may be a useful way for employers to target employee substance use. The present results also helped to integrate the results of several prior studies that employed narrower samples and measures.
authors.affiliation: Research Institute on Addictions, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1021 Main Street, Buffalo, New York 14203, USA. frone@ria.buffalo.edu
authors.forename: Michael R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Frone
authors.forename: Amy L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Brown
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003625:Data Collection / Q000379:methods; D005260:Female; D005544:Forecasting; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D011897:Random Allocation; D012931:Social Environment; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology*; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology; D017132:Workplace / Q000523:psychology*