Genital anomalies in boys and the environment.
The prevalence of male reproductive disorders, such as testicular cancer and impaired semen quality, is increasing in many, albeit not all, countries. These disorders are aetiologically linked with congenital cryptorchidism and hypospadias by common factors leading to perinatal disruption of normal testis differentiation, the testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS). There is recent evidence that also the prevalence of genital malformations is increasing and the rapid pace of increase suggests that lifestyle factors and exposure to environmental chemicals with endocrine disrupting properties may play a role. Recent prospective studies have established links between perinatal exposure to persistent halogenated compounds and cryptorchidism, as well as between phthalates and anti-androgenic effects in newborns. Maternal alcohol consumption, mild gestational diabetes and nicotine substitutes were also identified as potential risk factors for cryptorchidism. It may be the cocktail effect of many simultaneous exposures that result in adverse effects, especially during foetal life and infancy.
Main
Katharina M
KM
University Department of Growth and Reproduction GR, Section 5064, Rigshospitalet, Blegdamsvej 9, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark. katharina.main@rh.regionh.dk
Skakkebaek
Niels E
NE
Virtanen
Helena E
HE
Toppari
Jorma
J
D003456:Cryptorchidism / Q000150:complications / Q000453:epidemiology; D003718:Denmark / Q000453:epidemiology; D052244:Endocrine Disruptors / Q000633:toxicity; D004777:Environment; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000633:toxicity; D005260:Female; D005387:Finland / Q000453:epidemiology; D005837:Genitalia, Male / Q000002:abnormalities* / Q000187:drug effects; D006059:Gonadal Dysgenesis; D055768:Halogenated Diphenyl Ethers / Q000633:toxicity; D006801:Humans; D007021:Hypospadias / Q000453:epidemiology; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008297:Male; D008895:Milk, Human / Q000737:chemistry; D010795:Phthalic Acids / Q000378:metabolism; D011247:Pregnancy; D013736:Testicular Neoplasms / Q000453:epidemiology; D013737:Testis / Q000002:abnormalities
D052244:Endocrine Disruptors; D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D055768:Halogenated Diphenyl Ethers; D010795:Phthalic Acids; C086401:pentabromodiphenyl ether