title: Historical and contemporary gene dispersal in wild carrot (Daucus carota ssp. carota) populations.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Wild carrot is the ancestor of cultivated carrot and is the most important gene pool for carrot breeding. Transgenic carrot may be released into the environment in the future. The aim of the present study was to determine how far a gene can disperse in wild carrot populations, facilitating risk assessment and management of transgene introgression from cultivated to wild carrots and helping to design sampling strategies for germplasm collections.
  
  
  METHODS
  Wild carrots were sampled from Meijendel and Alkmaar in The Netherlands and genotyped with 12 microsatellite markers. Spatial autocorrelation analyses were used to detect spatial genetic structures (SGSs). Historical gene dispersal estimates were based on an isolation by distance model. Mating system and contemporary pollen dispersal were estimated using 437 offspring of 20 mothers with different spatial distances and a correlated paternity analysis in the Meijendel population.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Significant SGSs are found in both populations and they are not significantly different from each other. Combined SGS analysis indicated significant positive genetic correlations up to 27 m. Historical gene dispersal sigma(g) and neighbourhood size N(b) were estimated to be 4-12 m [95 % confidence interval (CI): 3-25] and 42-73 plants (95 % CI: 28-322) in Meijendel and 10-31 m (95 % CI: 7-infinity) and 57-198 plants (95 % CI: 28-infinity) in Alkmaar with longer gene dispersal in lower density populations. Contemporary pollen dispersal follows a fat-tailed exponential-power distribution, implying pollen of wild carrots could be dispersed by insects over long distance. The estimated outcrossing rate was 96 %.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  SGSs in wild carrots may be the result of high outcrossing, restricted seed dispersal and long-distance pollen dispersal. High outcrossing and long-distance pollen dispersal suggest high frequency of transgene flow might occur from cultivated to wild carrots and that they could easily spread within and between populations.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, The Netherlands. j.rong@biology.leidenuniv.nl
authors.forename: Jun
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Rong
authors.forename: Stef
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Janson
authors.forename: Mikihisa
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Umehara
authors.forename: Michiyuki
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Ono
authors.forename: Klaas
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Vrieling
mesh_terms: D018552:Daucus carota / Q000235:genetics*; D051456:Gene Flow / Q000235:genetics; D005838:Genotype; D018895:Microsatellite Repeats / Q000235:genetics