title: Venom on ice: first insights into Antarctic octopus venoms.
abstract: The venom of Antarctic octopus remains completely unstudied. Here, a preliminary investigation was conducted into the properties of posterior salivary gland (PSG) extracts from four Antarctica eledonine (Incirrata; Octopodidae) species (Adelieledone polymorpha, Megaleledone setebos, Pareledone aequipapillae, and Pareledone turqueti) collected from the coast off George V's Land, Antarctica. Specimens were assayed for alkaline phosphatase (ALP), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), proteolytic, phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)), and haemolytic activities. For comparison, stomach tissue from Cirroctopus sp. (Cirrata; Cirroctopodidae) was also assayed for ALP, AChE, proteolytic and haemolytic activities. Dietary and morphological data were collected from the literature to explore the ecological importance of venom, taking an adaptive evolutionary approach. Of the incirrate species, three showed activities in all assays, while P. turqueti did not exhibit any haemolytic activity. There was evidence for cold-adaptation of ALP in all incirrates, while proteolytic activity in all except P. turqueti. Cirroctopus sp. stomach tissue extract showed ALP, AChE and some proteolytic activity. It was concluded that the AChE activity seen in the PSG extracts was possibly due to a release of household proteins, and not one of the secreted salivary toxins. Although venom undoubtedly plays an important part in prey capture and processing by Antarctica eledonines, no obvious adaptations to differences in diet or morphology were apparent from the enzymatic and haemolytic assays. However, several morphological features including enlarged PSG, small buccal mass, and small beak suggest such adaptations are present. Future studies should be conducted on several levels: Venomic, providing more detailed information on the venom compositions as well as the venom components themselves; ecological, for example application of serological or genetic methods in identifying stomach contents; and behavioural, including observations on capture of different types of prey.
authors.affiliation: Norwegian University of Technology and Science, Department of Biology, Trondheim Biological Station, N-7491, Trondheim, Norway.
authors.forename: E A B
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Undheim
authors.forename: D N
authors.initials: DN
authors.lastname: Georgieva
authors.forename: H H
authors.initials: HH
authors.lastname: Thoen
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Norman
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mork
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Betzel
authors.forename: B G
authors.initials: BG
authors.lastname: Fry
mesh_terms: D000222:Adaptation, Physiological; D000469:Alkaline Phosphatase / Q000378:metabolism; D000818:Animals; D000864:Antarctic Regions; D002800:Cholinesterase Inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism; D003080:Cold Temperature; D004777:Environment; D004912:Erythrocytes / Q000187:drug effects; D005260:Female; D006461:Hemolysis; D008297:Male; D008978:Mollusk Venoms / Q000032:analysis* / Q000201:enzymology / Q000494:pharmacology; D049831:Octopodiformes / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000145:classification / Q000502:physiology*; D010641:Phenotype; D010802:Phylogeny; D012469:Salivary Glands / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D002800:Cholinesterase Inhibitors; D008978:Mollusk Venoms; D000469:Alkaline Phosphatase