title: Whole-cell fungal transformation of precursors into dyes.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Chemical methods of producing dyes involve extreme temperatures and unsafe toxic compounds. Application of oxidizing enzymes obtained from fungal species, for example laccase, is an alternative to chemical synthesis of dyes. Laccase can be replaced by fungal biomass acting as a whole-cell biocatalyst with properties comparable to the isolated form of the enzyme. The application of the whole-cell system simplifies the transformation process and reduces the time required for its completion. In the present work, four fungal strains with a well-known ability to produce laccase were tested for oxidation of 17 phenolic and non-phenolic precursors into stable and non-toxic dyes.
  
  
  RESULTS
  An agar-plate screening test of the organic precursors was carried out using four fungal strains: Trametes versicolor, Fomes fomentarius, Abortiporus biennis, and Cerrena unicolor. Out of 17 precursors, nine were transformed into coloured substances in the presence of actively growing fungal mycelium. The immobilized fungal biomass catalyzed the transformation of 1 mM benzene and naphthalene derivatives in liquid cultures yielding stable and non-toxic products with good dyeing properties. The type of fungal strain had a large influence on the absorbance of the coloured products obtained after 48-hour transformation of the selected precursors, and the most effective was Fomes fomentarius (FF25). Whole-cell transformation of AHBS (3-amino-4-hydroxybenzenesulfonic acid) into a phenoxazinone dye was carried out in four different systems: in aqueous media comprising low amounts of carbon and nitrogen source, in buffer, and in distilled water.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study demonstrated the ability of four fungal strains belonging to the ecological type of white rot fungi to transform precursors into dyes. This paper highlights the potential of fungal biomass for replacing isolated enzymes as a cheaper industrial-grade biocatalyst for the synthesis of dyes and other commercially important products. The use of immobilized fungal biomass limits free migration of cells and facilitates their reuse in a continuous system for precursor transformation.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Akademicka 19, Lublin, Poland. jpolak@poczta.umcs.lublin.pl
authors.forename: Jolanta
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Polak
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Jarosz-Wilkołazka
mesh_terms: D018533:Biomass; D004396:Coloring Agents / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism*; D055453:Coriolaceae / Q000378:metabolism; D005658:Fungi / Q000201:enzymology*; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D010078:Oxazines / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism*; D011124:Polyporaceae / Q000378:metabolism; D013056:Spectrophotometry, Ultraviolet; D013425:Sulfanilic Acids / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism*; D055454:Trametes / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D004396:Coloring Agents; D010078:Oxazines; D013425:Sulfanilic Acids; C020456:phenoxazinone