title: Controlled crystallization of the lipophilic drug fenofibrate during freeze-drying: elucidation of the mechanism by in-line Raman spectroscopy.
abstract: We developed a novel process, "controlled crystallization during freeze-drying" to produce drug nanocrystals of poorly water-soluble drugs. This process involves freeze-drying at a relatively high temperature of a drug and a matrix material from a mixture of tertiary butyl alcohol and water, resulting in drug nanocrystals incorporated in a matrix. The aim of this study was to elucidate the mechanisms that determine the size of the drug crystals. Fenofibrate was used as a model lipophilic drug. To monitor the crystallization during freeze-drying, a Raman probe was placed just above the sample in the freeze-dryer. These in-line Raman spectroscopy measurements clearly revealed when the different components crystallized during freeze-drying. The solvents crystallized only during the freezing step, while the solutes only crystallized after the temperature was increased, but before drying started. Although the solutes crystallized only after the freezing step, both the freezing rate and the shelf temperature were critical parameters that determined the final crystal size. At a higher freezing rate, smaller interstitial spaces containing the freeze-concentrated fraction were formed, resulting in smaller drug crystals (based on dissolution data). On the other hand, when the solutes crystallized at a lower shelf temperature, the degree of supersaturation is higher, resulting in a higher nucleation rate and consequently more and therefore smaller crystals. In conclusion, for the model drug fenofibrate, a high freezing rate and a relatively low crystallization temperature resulted in the smallest crystals and therefore the highest dissolution rate.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, University of Groningen, The Netherlands. h.de.waard@rug.nl
authors.forename: Hans
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: de Waard
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: De Beer
authors.forename: Wouter L J
authors.initials: WL
authors.lastname: Hinrichs
authors.forename: Chris
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Vervaet
authors.forename: Jean-Paul
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Remon
authors.forename: Henderik W
authors.initials: HW
authors.lastname: Frijlink
mesh_terms: D002152:Calorimetry, Differential Scanning; D003460:Crystallization; D011345:Fenofibrate / Q000737:chemistry*; D005612:Freeze Drying; D000960:Hypolipidemic Agents / Q000737:chemistry*; D012995:Solubility; D013056:Spectrophotometry, Ultraviolet; D013059:Spectrum Analysis, Raman / Q000379:methods*; D013607:Tablets; D014961:X-Ray Diffraction
chemical_list: D000960:Hypolipidemic Agents; D013607:Tablets; D011345:Fenofibrate