title: The genetics of pain: implications for evaluation and treatment of spinal disease.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Variability in human pain experience appears to be at least partially determined by genetic inheritance. To the extent that awareness of individual pain sensitivity and the tendency to develop chronic pain after injury or surgery would be informative for clinical decision making, development and use of genetic testing for specific pain markers could contribute to improved outcomes in management of spinal disease.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To review important and illustrative results from both classical and modern pain genetics studies and to introduce readers to critical definitions and concepts necessary to interpret the growing body of genetics literature relevant to spinal disease.
  
  
  METHODS
  Literature review and commentary.
  
  
  METHODS
  A review was performed of published English language studies in which genetic techniques were used to analyze the molecular basis of nociceptive signaling or processing with a particular emphasis on studies addressing genetic determinants of interindividual variability in pain sensitivity or predisposition to chronic pain.
  
  
  RESULTS
  There is compelling evidence indicating that interindividual differences in pain sensitivity and the risk of developing chronic pain syndromes are genetically determined. Despite a growing list of putative "pain genes," genetic association studies remain plagued with difficulty replicating initial findings in different cohorts.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Genome-wide association studies are potentially powerful means of identifying clinically relevant genetic markers predicting disease susceptibility, severity, and treatment response. However, accurate results require rigorous study design with use of large homogeneous populations and precise phenotypes.
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Tufts University Medical School, New England Baptist Hospital, Boston, MA 02120, USA. dhkim@caregroup.harvard.edu
authors.forename: David H
authors.initials: DH
authors.lastname: Kim
authors.forename: Carolyn E
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Schwartz
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D020022:Genetic Predisposition to Disease; D006801:Humans; D010146:Pain / Q000209:etiology* / Q000235:genetics*; D017288:Pain Threshold / Q000502:physiology*; D011110:Polymorphism, Genetic; D013122:Spinal Diseases / Q000150:complications* / Q000628:therapy*