title: Cadaveric study of anterior cruciate ligament failure patterns under uniaxial tension along the ligament.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of our study was to clarify the events that take place during anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) failure, focusing on the behavior of the ACL as a composition of multiple fibers, during uniaxial tension along the ligament.
  
  
  METHODS
  Ten fresh-frozen human cadaveric knee specimens were fixed in an Instron machine (Instron, Norwood, MA), and load was applied parallel to the ACL axis. Two cameras were used to detect the failure mode of the ACL and its different groups of fibers. The distinct bundles of fibers were marked in each specimen before testing. The macroscopic findings during the experiment were used for comparison with the biomechanical results.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The ACL showed a non-monotonic response during testing. The load-elongation curve showed a plateau or a second peak after the initial drop in load. Macroscopically, some fibers were failing initially, whereas the intact fibers had a remaining load potential. In our setting, 3 different failure patterns were recognized, specifically, a midsubstance tear of the anteromedial or the posterolateral bundle with a subsequent failure of the intact bundle or an initial avulsion of the anteromedial attachment. Analysis of the video frames showed a direct connection between the failure patterns in the load-elongation curves and the macroscopic sequence of events during ACL failure.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The ACL ligament acts as a multifiber construction. In our setting, rupture follows 3 specific patterns where a complete or partial tear of the fiber bundles occurs first and the remaining intact fiber bundles have a potential load resistance.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our study allows a better understanding of the mechanical properties of the ACL. An update on the biomechanics of ACL failure during uniaxial tension after the "double-bundle revolution" could provide data helpful for ACL reconstruction.
authors.affiliation: Orthopaedic Sports Medicine Center of Ioannina, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece.
authors.forename: Nikolaos K
authors.initials: NK
authors.lastname: Paschos
authors.forename: Dimitrios
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Gartzonikas
authors.forename: Nektaria-Marianthi
authors.initials: NM
authors.lastname: Barkoula
authors.forename: Constantina
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Moraiti
authors.forename: Alkis
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Paipetis
authors.forename: Theodore E
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: Matikas
authors.forename: Anastasios D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Georgoulis
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D016118:Anterior Cruciate Ligament / Q000503:physiopathology*; D000070598:Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D002102:Cadaver; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012421:Rupture; D013718:Tensile Strength; D014741:Video Recording; D016474:Weight-Bearing