title: A paradigm shift is required for the risk assessment of potential human health after exposure to low level chemical exposures: a response to the toxicity testing in the 21st century report.
abstract: Chemicals are known to be associated with birth defects, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, immunological, reproductive, and neurological disorders. In response to recent reviews of limitations of current concepts and techniques for toxicity testing, this commentary challenges the paradigm that chemicals are directly responsible for DNA damage in the genomic-nuclear DNA in relevant cells of the human body. This challenge is not that mutations do not play roles in human-inherited or somatic diseases but that chemical exposures bring about disease end points by epigenetic mechanisms or by alterations in adult stem cell numbers in utero (ie, the Barker hypothesis) or postnatally, by selecting preexisting mutated cells. Classic concepts, that is, multistage, multimechanism process of carcinogenesis, stem cell theory of cancer, and newer and ignored concepts, such as cancer stem cells and cell-cell communication, will be used to support the view that the toxic effect of chemicals is mediated by nonmutagenic mechanisms at human relevant exposures.
authors.affiliation: Department Pediatrics and Human Development, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA. james.trosko@hc.msu.edu
authors.forename: James E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Trosko
authors.forename: Brad L
authors.initials: BL
authors.lastname: Upham
mesh_terms: D004781:Environmental Exposure; D006801:Humans; D018570:Risk Assessment; D018675:Toxicity Tests