title: Early adolescent cocaine use as determined by hair analysis in a prenatal cocaine exposure cohort.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Preclinical and other research suggest that youth with prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE) may be at high risk for cocaine use due to both altered brain development and exposure to unhealthy environments.
  
  
  METHODS
  Participants are early adolescents who were prospectively enrolled in a longitudinal study of PCE prior to or at birth. Hair samples were collected from the youth at ages 10½ and 12½ (N=263). Samples were analyzed for cocaine and its metabolites using ELISA screening with gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS) confirmation of positive samples. Statistical analyses included comparisons between the hair-positive and hair-negative groups on risk and protective factors chosen a priori as well as hierarchical logistical regression analyses to predict membership in the hair-positive group.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Hair samples were positive for cocaine use for 14% (n=36) of the tested cohort. Exactly half of the hair-positive preteens had a history of PCE. Group comparisons revealed that hair-negative youth had significantly higher IQ scores at age 10½; the hair-positive youth had greater availability of cigarettes, alcohol, and other drugs in the home; caregivers with more alcohol problems and depressive symptoms; less nurturing home environments; and less positive attachment to their primary caregivers and peers. The caregivers of the hair-positive preteens reported that the youth displayed more externalizing and social problems, and the hair-positive youth endorsed more experimentation with cigarettes, alcohol, and/or other drugs. Mental health problems, peer drug use, exposure to violence, and neighborhood characteristics did not differ between the groups. Regression analyses showed that the availability of drugs in the home had the greatest predictive value for hair-positive group membership while higher IQ, more nurturing home environments, and positive attachment to caregivers or peers exerted some protective effect.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results do not support a direct relationship between PCE and early adolescent experimentation with cocaine. Proximal risk and protective factors-those associated with the home environment and preteens' caregivers-were more closely related to early cocaine use than more distal factors such as neighborhood characteristics. Consistent with theories of adolescent problem behavior, the data demonstrate the complexity of predicting pre-adolescent drug use and identify a number of individual and contextual factors that could serve as important foci for intervention.
authors.affiliation: University of Florida, Department of Pediatrics, P.O. Box 100296, Gainesville, FL 32610-0296, USA. warnert@ecu.edu
authors.forename: Tamara Duckworth
authors.initials: TD
authors.lastname: Warner
authors.forename: Marylou
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Behnke
authors.forename: Fonda Davis
authors.initials: FD
authors.lastname: Eyler
authors.forename: Nancy J
authors.initials: NJ
authors.lastname: Szabo
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000294:Adolescent Behavior / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000523:psychology; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000032:analysis; D003042:Cocaine / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D019970:Cocaine-Related Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000209:etiology / Q000523:psychology; D003627:Data Interpretation, Statistical; D005260:Female; D006197:Hair / Q000737:chemistry*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008960:Models, Psychological; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000523:psychology*; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D015813:Substance Abuse Detection / Q000379:methods*
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D003042:Cocaine