title: A circadian rhythm in skill-based errors in aviation maintenance.
abstract: In workplaces where activity continues around the clock, human error has been observed to exhibit a circadian rhythm, with a characteristic peak in the early hours of the morning. Errors are commonly distinguished by the nature of the underlying cognitive failure, particularly the level of intentionality involved in the erroneous action. The Skill-Rule-Knowledge (SRK) framework of Rasmussen is used widely in the study of industrial errors and accidents. The SRK framework describes three fundamental types of error, according to whether behavior is under the control of practiced sensori-motor skill routines with minimal conscious awareness; is guided by implicit or explicit rules or expertise; or where the planning of actions requires the conscious application of domain knowledge. Up to now, examinations of circadian patterns of industrial errors have not distinguished between different types of error. Consequently, it is not clear whether all types of error exhibit the same circadian rhythm. A survey was distributed to aircraft maintenance personnel in Australia. Personnel were invited to anonymously report a safety incident and were prompted to describe, in detail, the human involvement (if any) that contributed to it. A total of 402 airline maintenance personnel reported an incident, providing 369 descriptions of human error in which the time of the incident was reported and sufficient detail was available to analyze the error. Errors were categorized using a modified version of the SRK framework, in which errors are categorized as skill-based, rule-based, or knowledge-based, or as procedure violations. An independent check confirmed that the SRK framework had been applied with sufficient consistency and reliability. Skill-based errors were the most common form of error, followed by procedure violations, rule-based errors, and knowledge-based errors. The frequency of errors was adjusted for the estimated proportion of workers present at work/each hour of the day, and the 24 h pattern of each error type was examined. Skill-based errors exhibited a significant circadian rhythm, being most prevalent in the early hours of the morning. Variation in the frequency of rule-based errors, knowledge-based errors, and procedure violations over the 24 h did not reach statistical significance. The results suggest that during the early hours of the morning, maintenance technicians are at heightened risk of "absent minded" errors involving failures to execute action plans as intended.
authors.affiliation: San Jose State University/NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California 94035-1000, USA. alan.hobbs@nasa.gov
authors.forename: Alan
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hobbs
authors.forename: Ann
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Williamson
authors.forename: Hans P A
authors.initials: HP
authors.lastname: Van Dongen
mesh_terms: D000062:Accidents, Occupational; D000401:Aircraft; D001315:Australia; D001359:Aviation; D002940:Circadian Rhythm; D006801:Humans; D008283:Maintenance; D016272:Occupational Health; D009790:Occupations; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D017132:Workplace