title: The acute phase response and soman-induced status epilepticus: temporal, regional and cellular changes in rat brain cytokine concentrations.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Neuroinflammation occurs following brain injury, including soman (GD) induced status epilepticus (SE), and may contribute to loss of neural tissue and declined behavioral function. However, little is known about this important pathological process following GD exposure. Limited transcriptional information on a small number of brain-expressed inflammatory mediators has been shown following GD-induced SE and even less information on protein upregulation has been elucidated. The purpose of this study is to further characterize the regional and temporal progression of the neuroinflammatory process following acute GD-induced SE.
  
  
  METHODS
  The protein levels of 10 cytokines was quantified using bead multiplex immunoassays in damaged brain regions (i.e., piriform cortex, hippocampus and thalamus) up to 72 hours following seizure onset. Those factors showing significant changes were then localized to neural cells using fluorescent IHC.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A significant concentration increase was observed in all injured brain regions for four acute phase response (APR) induction cytokines: interleukin (IL)-1alpha, IL-1beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. Increases in these APR cytokines corresponded both temporally and regionally to areas of known seizure damage and neuronal death. Neurotoxic cytokines IL-1alpha and IL-1beta were primarily expressed by activated microglia whereas the potentially neuroprotective cytokine IL-6 was expressed by neurons and hypertrophic astrocytes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Increases in neurotoxic cytokines likely play an active role in the progression of GD-induced SE neuropathology though the exact role that these and other cytokines play in this process require further study.
authors.affiliation: Research Division, Pharmacology Branch, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010, USA. erik.a.johnson1@us.army.mil
authors.forename: Erik A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.forename: Robert K
authors.initials: RK
authors.lastname: Kan
mesh_terms: D000210:Acute-Phase Reaction / Q000276:immunology / Q000473:pathology; D000818:Animals; D001921:Brain / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000378:metabolism*; D003292:Convulsants / Q000633:toxicity*; D016207:Cytokines / Q000276:immunology*; D006801:Humans; D007118:Immunoassay / Q000379:methods; D053583:Interleukin-1beta / Q000378:metabolism; D015850:Interleukin-6 / Q000378:metabolism; D008297:Male; D051381:Rats; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D012999:Soman / Q000633:toxicity*; D013226:Status Epilepticus / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000276:immunology / Q000473:pathology; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D003292:Convulsants; D016207:Cytokines; D053583:Interleukin-1beta; D015850:Interleukin-6; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; D012999:Soman