title: Do predators cause frog deformities? The need for an eco-epidemiological approach.
abstract: Renewed controversy has emerged over the likely causes and consequences of deformed amphibians, particularly those with missing limbs. The results of a series of experiments by Ballengée and Sessions (2009) implicate aquatic predators (i.e. dragonfly larvae) in causing such abnormalities. Skelly and Benard (2010), however, argued that the small scale of these experiments and the absence of a correlation between predator abundance and deformity frequencies in natural amphibian populations undermine such a conclusion. Drawing upon our experiences with frog malformations, we suggest that the study of amphibian deformities has been hindered by two, interrelated problems. First, empirical studies often fail to critically define the expected baseline level of abnormalities and differentiate between "epidemic" and "endemic" frequencies of malformations. Second, recognizing the likelihood of multiple causes in driving amphibian malformations, continued research needs to embrace a "multiple lines of evidence" approach that allows for complex etiologies by integrating field surveys, diagnostic pathology, comparative modeling, and experiments across a range of ecological scales. We conclude by highlighting the results of a recent study that uses this approach to identify the role of aquatic predators (i.e., fishes and dragonflies) in causing high frequencies of deformed frogs in Oregon. By combining long-term data, comparative data and mechanistic experiments, this study provides compelling evidence that certain predators do cause deformities under ecologically relevant conditions. In light of continuing concerns about amphibian deformities and population declines, we emphasize the need to integrate ecological, epidemiological, and developmental tools in addressing such environmental enigmas.
authors: Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. pieter.johnson@colorado.edu.
authors: Pieter T J
authors: PT
authors: Johnson
authors: Jay
authors: J
authors: Bowerman
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000013:Congenital Abnormalities / Q000209:etiology* / Q000473:pathology; D017753:Ecosystem; D007814:Larva; D063191:Odonata; D009922:Oregon; D011153:Population; D011235:Predatory Behavior; D011898:Ranidae / Q000293:injuries* / Q000502:physiology