title: Immunomodulatory effects of opioids.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review the immunomodulatory effects of opioids.
  
  
  METHODS
  Original research publications and review articles using the PubMed search engine with the following keywords--opioids, morphine, immuomodulation, and immunosuppression. VETERINARY AND HUMAN DATA SYNTHESIS: Opioids have been shown to modulate the immune system in animal models by affecting both the acquired and innate arms of the immune system. Natural killer cell activity, T-cell proliferation, antibody production, phagocytic cell function, and cytokine production have all been shown to be affected by opioids. Many of these effects are reversed by opioid antagonists. Opioids have also been shown to induce sepsis in laboratory animals. Opioid administration alters immune parameters in healthy humans at analgesic doses and may increase the risk of infection in some patient populations.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  While opioids remain the most powerful and widely used analgesics available, their negative effects on the immune system are well established in the laboratory setting. Thoughtful consideration should be given to the use of certain opioids in critically ill patients, especially those with pre-existing immunocompromise.
authors: Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.
authors: Adesola
authors: A
authors: Odunayo
authors: John R
authors: JR
authors: Dodam
authors: Marie E
authors: ME
authors: Kerl
authors: Amy E
authors: AE
authors: DeClue
mesh_terms: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000276:immunology / Q000494:pharmacology*; D000818:Animals; D003422:Critical Care; D006801:Humans; D007107:Immune System / Q000187:drug effects; D007108:Immune Tolerance / Q000276:immunology; D007155:Immunologic Factors / Q000494:pharmacology*; D007165:Immunosuppression Therapy / Q000379:methods / Q000662:veterinary; D007694:Killer Cells, Natural / Q000187:drug effects / Q000276:immunology*; D009292:Narcotic Antagonists / Q000494:pharmacology; D009294:Narcotics / Q000276:immunology*; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000276:immunology
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D007155:Immunologic Factors; D009292:Narcotic Antagonists; D009294:Narcotics