title: Interventions to improve hand hygiene compliance in patient care.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Health care-associated infection is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Hand hygiene is regarded as an effective preventive measure.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To update the review done in 2007, to assess the short and longer-term success of strategies to improve hand hygiene compliance and to determine whether a sustained increase in hand hygiene compliance can reduce rates of health care-associated infection.
  
  
  METHODS
  We conducted electronic searches of: the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials; the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care Group specialised register of trials; MEDLINE; PubMed; EMBASE; CINAHL; and the BNI. Originally searched to July 2006, for the update databases were searched from August 2006 until November 2009.
  
  
  METHODS
  Randomised controlled trials, controlled clinical trials, controlled before and after studies, and interrupted time series analyses meeting explicit entry and quality criteria used by the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care Group were eligible for inclusion. Studies reporting indicators of hand hygiene compliance and proxy indicators such as product use were considered. Self-reported data were not considered a valid measure of compliance. Studies to promote hand hygiene compliance as part of a care bundle approach were included, providing data relating specifically to hand hygiene were presented separately. Studies were excluded if hand hygiene was assessed in simulations, non-clinical settings or the operating theatre setting.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed data quality.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Four studies met the criteria for the review: two from the original review and two from the update. Two studies evaluated simple education initiatives, one using a randomized clinical trial design and the other a controlled before and after design. Both measured hand hygiene compliance by direct observation. The other two studies were both interrupted times series studies. One study presented three separate interventions within the same paper: simple substitutions of product and two multifaceted campaigns, one of which included involving practitioners in making decisions about choice of hand hygiene products and the components of the hand hygiene program. The other study also presented two separate multifaceted campaigns, one of which involved application of social marketing theory. In these two studies follow-up data collection continued beyond twelve months, and a proxy measure of hand hygiene compliance (product use) was recorded. Microbiological data were recorded in one study. Hand hygiene compliance increased for one of the studies where it was measured by direct observation, but the results from the other study were not conclusive. Product use increased in the two studies in which it was reported, with inconsistent results reported for one initiative. MRSA incidence decreased in the one study reporting microbiological data.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The quality of intervention studies intended to increase hand hygiene compliance remains disappointing. Although multifaceted campaigns with social marketing or staff involvement appear to have an effect, there is insufficient evidence to draw a firm conclusion. There remains an urgent need to undertake methodologically robust research to explore the effectiveness of soundly designed and implemented interventions to increase hand hygiene compliance.
authors.affiliation: Adult Nursing Department, School of Community and Health Sciences, City University, 24 Chiswell Street, London, UK, EC1 4TY.
authors.forename: Dinah J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Gould
authors.forename: Donna
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Moralejo
authors.forename: Nicholas
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Drey
authors.forename: Jane H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Chudleigh
mesh_terms: D016360:Clostridioides difficile; D003015:Clostridium Infections / Q000517:prevention & control; D003428:Cross Infection / Q000517:prevention & control*; D006235:Hand Disinfection / Q000592:standards*; D006282:Health Personnel; D006801:Humans; D017757:Infectious Disease Transmission, Professional-to-Patient / Q000517:prevention & control*; D055624:Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus; D013203:Staphylococcal Infections / Q000517:prevention & control