title: Differential effects of copper and cadmium exposure on toxicity endpoints and gene expression in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.
abstract: The toxicity of cadmium to aquatic organisms is well known, but the mechanisms of toxicity are not as clearly understood. In the present study, Cd bioassay experiments incorporating both traditional endpoints and novel thiol-based endpoints were conducted with Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The results were compared with results from previous bioassay experiments to probe the apparent contrasting biochemical mechanisms of toxicity of copper and cadmium as expressed in cellular glutathione and the glutathione cycle. Total glutathione and reduced to oxidized glutathione ratio (GSH/GSSG) measurements were remarkably different in Cd- compared with Cu-exposed cells. Whereas total glutathione in cells decreased with increasing Cu concentration, Cd caused dramatic increases. Total glutathione increased by 4.5-fold with 80 nM Cd treatment over concentrations in Cd-free controls. Glutathione reductase (GR) enzyme activity was positively correlated (r(2) (Cu) = 0.96, r(2) (Cd) = 0.85) with glutathione concentrations for both metals. Measurements of mRNA for GR were increased 2-fold in response to Cd exposure (80 nM) and correlated well with GR enzyme activity. Glutathione concentrations and GR enzyme activity are useful endpoints for both Cu and Cd toxicity in algae, even though the metals elicit opposing responses. We conclude that Cu decreases glutathione concentrations by inhibiting GR enzyme activity. In contrast, Cd stimulates GR enzyme activity and increases glutathione concentrations as cells respond to Cd-induced stress by producing increased antioxidant capacity. The present study demonstrates that determining the glutathione response in cells is important for understanding the metal-specific mechanisms of toxicity and that these associated novel endpoints may be useful metrics for accurately predicting toxicity.
authors.affiliation: Environmental Chemistry and Technology Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 660 North Park Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA. stoiber@wisc.edu
authors.forename: Tasha L
authors.initials: TL
authors.lastname: Stoiber
authors.forename: Martin M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Shafer
authors.forename: David E
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Armstrong
mesh_terms: D002104:Cadmium / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000633:toxicity*; D016825:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics / Q000254:growth & development; D003300:Copper / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000633:toxicity*; D023381:Endpoint Determination; D015870:Gene Expression / Q000187:drug effects; D005978:Glutathione / Q000378:metabolism; D005980:Glutathione Reductase / Q000378:metabolism; D006812:Humic Substances; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D006812:Humic Substances; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D002104:Cadmium; D003300:Copper; D005980:Glutathione Reductase; D005978:Glutathione