European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD.
BACKGROUND
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is among the most common psychiatric disorders of childhood that persists into adulthood in the majority of cases. The evidence on persistence poses several difficulties for adult psychiatry considering the lack of expertise for diagnostic assessment, limited treatment options and patient facilities across Europe.


METHODS
The European Network Adult ADHD, founded in 2003, aims to increase awareness of this disorder and improve knowledge and patient care for adults with ADHD across Europe. This Consensus Statement is one of the actions taken by the European Network Adult ADHD in order to support the clinician with research evidence and clinical experience from 18 European countries in which ADHD in adults is recognised and treated.


RESULTS
Besides information on the genetics and neurobiology of ADHD, three major questions are addressed in this statement: (1) What is the clinical picture of ADHD in adults? (2) How can ADHD in adults be properly diagnosed? (3) How should ADHD in adults be effectively treated?


CONCLUSIONS
ADHD often presents as an impairing lifelong condition in adults, yet it is currently underdiagnosed and treated in many European countries, leading to ineffective treatment and higher costs of illness. Expertise in diagnostic assessment and treatment of ADHD in adults must increase in psychiatry. Instruments for screening and diagnosis of ADHD in adults are available and appropriate treatments exist, although more research is needed in this age group.
Kooij
Sandra J J
SJ
PsyQ, psycho medische programma's, Department Adult ADHD, Carel Reinierszkade 197, Den Haag, The Netherlands. s.kooij@psyq.nl
Bejerot
Susanne
S
Blackwell
Andrew
A
Caci
Herve
H
Casas-Brugué
Miquel
M
Carpentier
Pieter J
PJ
Edvinsson
Dan
D
Fayyad
John
J
Foeken
Karin
K
Fitzgerald
Michael
M
Gaillac
Veronique
V
Ginsberg
Ylva
Y
Henry
Chantal
C
Krause
Johanna
J
Lensing
Michael B
MB
Manor
Iris
I
Niederhofer
Helmut
H
Nunes-Filipe
Carlos
C
Ohlmeier
Martin D
MD
Oswald
Pierre
P
Pallanti
Stefano
S
Pehlivanidis
Artemios
A
Ramos-Quiroga
Josep A
JA
Rastam
Maria
M
Ryffel-Rawak
Doris
D
Stes
Steven
S
Asherson
Philip
P
D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000628:therapy*; D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants / Q000627:therapeutic use; D002648:Child; D003131:Combined Modality Therapy; D032921:Consensus; D018450:Disease Progression; D005060:Europe; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D017410:Practice Guidelines as Topic / Q000592:standards; D011613:Psychotherapy / Q000379:methods
D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants
Biol Psychiatry. 2005 Jun 1;57(11):1313-23
15950004
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997 Sep;36(9):1204-10
9291721
Biol Psychiatry. 2006 May 1;59(9):829-35
16373066
J Safety Res. 2007;38(1):113-28
17303170
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996 Jul;53(7):607-16
8660127
J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65 Suppl 3:3-7
15046528
Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Apr;155(4):493-8
9545994
Pediatrics. 1999 Aug;104(2):e20
10429138
Am J Psychiatry. 1995 Mar;152(3):431-5
7864271
J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009 Feb;29(1):44-50
19142107
Cereb Cortex. 2007 Jun;17(6):1364-75
16920883
Psychol Med. 2005 Aug;35(8):1097-108
16116936
Behav Res Ther. 2005 Jul;43(7):831-42
15896281
Biol Psychiatry. 1999 Jun 15;45(12):1542-52
10376114
Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Nov 1;62(9):1059-61
17511972
Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008 May 1;95(1-2):140-6
18328639
J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 Jan;68(1):93-101
17284136
World J Biol Psychiatry. 2006;7(3):152-7
16861140
J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2005 Oct;15(5):787-98
16262595
JAMA. 1998 Apr 8;279(14):1100-7
9546570
Psychiatry Res. 1994 Jul;53(1):13-29
7991729
Am J Addict. 1997 Summer;6(3):205-17
9256986
Actas Esp Psiquiatr. 2009 Nov-Dec;37(6):299-305
20066581
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008 Jan;49(1):70-8
17979965
Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2006 Jan 5;141B(1):55-60
16287044
Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;13 Suppl 1:I102-16
15322961
Accid Anal Prev. 2007 Jan;39(1):94-105
16919226
Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2009 Sep;12(8):1137-47
19580697
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1991 Sep;30(5):743-51
1938789
Psychopathology. 1999 Mar-Apr;32(2):81-92
10026452
Neuroimage. 2007 Feb 1;34(3):1182-90
17126039
J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67 Suppl 8:46-50
16961430
Biochem Pharmacol. 2007 Oct 15;74(8):1212-23
17689498
Am J Psychiatry. 2003 Nov;160(11):1909-18
14594733
Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008 Dec 5;147B(8):1576-9
18802924
Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001 Jun;931:251-70
11462745
Am J Addict. 2007;16 Suppl 1:45-54; quiz 55-6
17453606
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000 Aug;39(8):1059-61
10939236
J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2002 Jul;8(5):655-72
12164675
Braz J Psychiatry. 2003 Sep;25(3):127-8
12975683
Psychiatry Res. 2003 Aug 1;119(3):217-23
12914893
J Atten Disord. 2008 May;11(6):642-51
18417729
Genet Epidemiol. 2000 Jan;18(1):1-16
10603455
Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Jun 15;61(12):1361-9
16950217
J Atten Disord. 2008 Jan;11(4):445-58
18083961
Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2004 Jun;27(2):303-21
15063999
J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 Nov;68(11):e28
18052554
Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007 Jun;16 Suppl 1:78-88
17665286
Am J Psychiatry. 2002 Jan;159(1):36-42
11772687
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993 Jul;50(7):565-76
8317950
Behav Brain Funct. 2005 Oct 03;1:16
16202140
J Atten Disord. 2003 Nov;7(2):93-100
15018358
J Am Board Fam Pract. 2004 Jul-Aug;17(4):235-9
15243010
Psychol Med. 2004 May;34(4):681-92
15099422
Dev Med Child Neurol. 1996 Oct;38(10):891-906
8870611
Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2001 Apr;10(2):299-316, viii-ix
11351800
J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000 Oct;68(5):830-42
11068969
CNS Spectr. 2008 Dec;13(12):1047-55
19179940
J Clin Psychiatry. 1984 Oct;45(10):441-2
6480572
J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 2001;29(2):186-93
11471785
Mol Psychiatry. 2009 Jan;14(1):71-85
17938636
Psychol Med. 2007 Dec;37(12):1743-52
17349106
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985 Oct;42(10):937-47
4037987
Biol Psychiatry. 1997 Jan 1;41(1):65-75
8988797
Psychiatry Res. 2008 Sep 30;160(3):237-46
18707766
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001 Mar;58(3):289-95
11231836
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996 Mar;35(3):343-51
8714323
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008 May;49(5):535-42
18221348
Genes Brain Behav. 2010 Jul;9(5):449-58
20113357
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2004 Mar;45(3):577-88
15055376
J Atten Disord. 2009 Mar;12(5):449-59
19218542
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2003 Nov;27(7):605-13
14624805
Biol Psychiatry. 2010 Jun 1;67(11):1091-6
20163790
Psychiatr Serv. 1995 Aug;46(8):761-3, 765
7583473
Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2006 Jan;15(1):13-50
16321724
Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14(4):293-9
19072757
World Psychiatry. 2003 Jun;2(2):104-13
16946911
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007 Aug;46(8):1015-1027
17667480
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993 May;50(5):333-40
8489322
Acta Paediatr. 2007 Sep;96(9):1269-74
17718779
Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2008 Jan;42(1):24-9
18058440
Biol Psychiatry. 2005 Jun 1;57(11):1263-72
15949998
Psychol Med. 2005 Feb;35(2):245-56
15841682
Acta Paediatr. 2008 Feb;97(2):239-45
18254913
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997 Jun;36(6):745-53
9183128
J Nerv Ment Dis. 2002 Mar;190(3):147-57
11923649
J Adolesc Health. 2004 Oct;35(4):346.e1-9
15830457
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000 Nov;39(11):1432-7
11068899
Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2001 Aug 4;145(31):1485-9
11512418
Psychol Med. 2005 Jun;35(6):807-16
15997601
Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Feb 15;61(4):538-44
17276750
J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2008 Apr;29(2):75-81
18478626
Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008 Jul 1;96(1-2):145-54
18403134
JAMA. 2009 Sep 9;302(10):1084-91
19738093
Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2007 Oct;9(5):427-33
17915084
J Clin Psychiatry. 2009 May;70(5):e12
19552859
Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Jun;163(6):1052-60
16741206
J Abnorm Psychol. 2002 May;111(2):279-89
12003449
Biol Psychiatry. 2005 Jul 15;58(2):125-31
16038683
J Psychoactive Drugs. 2008 Jun;40(2):139-46
18720662
Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2006 Oct;8(5):409-15
16968624
Drugs Today (Barc). 2008 May;44(5):319-24
18548134
Biol Psychiatry. 2009 Oct 15;66(8):722-7
19596120
Am J Psychiatry. 2007 Apr;164(4):674-7
17403983
Dev Psychopathol. 2008 Fall;20(4):1133-43
18838034
J Clin Psychiatry. 2008 Aug;69(8):1217-22
18681752
J Neurosci. 1998 Aug 1;18(15):5901-7
9671677
Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008 Dec 5;147B(8):1450-60
18189238
Compr Psychiatry. 1996 Nov-Dec;37(6):393-401
8932963
J Occup Environ Med. 2005 Jun;47(6):565-72
15951716
Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2010 Jul;153B(5):1008-15
20213726
Expert Rev Neurother. 2009 Apr;9(4):489-503
19344301
Psychol Med. 2006 Feb;36(2):159-65
16420712
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994 Jul-Aug;33(6):875-81
8083145
J Atten Disord. 2002;6 Suppl 1:S7-16
12685515
CNS Spectr. 2006 Aug;11(8):625-39
16871129
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000 Nov;39(11):1424-31
11068898
Pediatrics. 1996 Dec;98(6 Pt 1):1089-95
8951258
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997 Jan;36(1):21-9
9000777
Z Kinder Jugendpsychiatr Psychother. 1997 Dec;25(4):218-33
9476342
J Clin Psychiatry. 2002;63 Suppl 12:10-5
12562056
Biol Psychiatry. 2004 Apr 1;55(7):692-700
15038997
J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1996 Oct;24(5):555-69
8956084
Am J Psychiatry. 1993 Jun;150(6):885-90
8494063
Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006 Dec;15(8):476-95
16680409
Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Dec;163(12):2059-63
17151154
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004 Mar;43(3):332-40
15076267
Br J Psychiatry. 2007 Jan;190:4-5
17197649
Am J Psychiatry. 1996 Sep;153(9):1143-6
8780416
Biol Psychiatry. 2006 Nov 15;60(10):1071-80
16876137
Biol Psychiatry. 2005 Mar 15;57(6):647-54
15780852
J Affect Disord. 2000 May;58(2):99-106
10781699
Bull Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 1996;24(3):333-45
8889133
J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2008 Apr;36(3):385-98
17965931
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999 Aug;38(8):966-75
10434488
Dev Neuropsychol. 2005;27(1):107-33
15737944
Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2004 Jun;27(2):261-82
15063997
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009 Jul;50(7):780-9
19207632
CNS Drugs. 2005;19(8):643-55
16097847
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008 Sep;49(9):958-66
18573145
Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;10(3):211-21
18615170
J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. 1985 Mar;24(2):211-20
3989165
Cereb Cortex. 2008 May;18(5):1210-20
17906338
J Clin Neurophysiol. 2006 Oct;23(5):440-55
17016156
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997 Sep;36(9):1211-21
9291722
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010 May;49(5):503-13
20431470
Psychol Med. 2009 Jan;39(1):137-47
18423074
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999 Feb;38(2):156-64
9951214
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009 Sep;48(9):884-893
19625978
Pediatrics. 2003 Jan;111(1):179-85
12509574
J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68 Suppl 11:4-8
18307375
Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001;251(1):42-7
11315518
Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Oct;163(10):1720-9; quiz 1859
17012682
Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001 Jun;10(2):130-4
11469285
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1997 Nov;38(8):931-41
9413793
Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006 Sep;256 Suppl 1:i26-31
16977548
Semin Neurol. 2008 Jul;28(3):379-88
18777484
Hum Genet. 2009 Jul;126(1):13-50
19384554
Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2003 Mar;6(1):1-16
12659448
J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68 Suppl 11:15-22
18307377
Am J Psychiatry. 2010 Jan;167(1):14-6
20068122
Am J Psychiatry. 2003 Nov;160(11):1970-7
14594743
Br J Psychiatry. 2007 May;190:402-9
17470954
Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2010 Mar 5;153B(2):512-523
19603419
J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59 Suppl 7:50-8
9680053
J Atten Disord. 2009 Mar;12(5):434-41
18310557
J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1995 Dec;23(6):729-49
8609310
Psychol Med. 1999 May;29(3):515-25
10405074
Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2010 May;25(3):157-73
20197297
Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Jul;157(7):1156-9
10873926
J Atten Disord. 2008 Sep;12(2):115-25
18192623
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997 Jun;36(6):754-63
9183129
Neuropsychol Rehabil. 2006 Dec;16(6):653-65
17127571
Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2002 Dec;4(4):444-8
22034444
Int J Psychophysiol. 2005 Feb;55(2):191-8
15649550
Perspect Psychiatr Care. 2002 Apr-Jun;38(2):69-72
12132633
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005 Nov;62(11):1266-74
16275814
Hum Mol Genet. 2006 Jul 15;15(14):2276-84
16774975
Arch Dis Child. 2003 Oct;88(10):904-10
14500312
Am J Psychiatry. 1991 May;148(5):564-77
2018156
Biol Psychiatry. 2008 May 15;63(10):935-45
18179783
Child Care Health Dev. 2006 Sep;32(5):575-83
16919137
J Clin Psychiatry. 1997;58 Suppl 14:14-29; discussion 30-1
9418743
Am J Addict. 2007 Jan-Feb;16(1):46-8
17364421
Psychol Med. 2009 Aug;39(8):1325-35
19105857
CNS Drugs. 2008;22(7):603-11
18547128
Am J Psychiatry. 1996 Sep;153(9):1147-53
8780417
Clin EEG Neurosci. 2009 Jul;40(3):180-9
19715181
Behav Brain Funct. 2006 Aug 03;2:27
16887023
J Psychopharmacol. 2007 Jan;21(1):10-41
17092962
Nervenarzt. 2003 Oct;74(10):939-46
14655655
Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2007 Sep 5;144B(6):709-14
17440942
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997 Jun;36(6):737-44
9183127
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2003 May;44(4):637-46
12751853
Alcohol Alcohol. 2008 May-Jun;43(3):300-4
18326548
Psychol Med. 2004 Aug;34(6):973-82
15554568
Am J Orthopsychiatry. 1999 Jul;69(3):403-9
10439855
Psychol Med. 2009 Apr;39(4):685-93
18588742
Depress Anxiety. 2009;26(3):212-21
19194995
J Gambl Stud. 2009 Jun;25(2):227-38
19283457
J Cogn Neurosci. 2008 Mar;20(3):478-93
18004945
Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009 Mar;259(2):120-9
19165529
Biol Psychiatry. 2005 Apr 1;57(7):793-801
15820237
Psychol Assess. 2002 Dec;14(4):379-89
12501563
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005 Feb;44(2):177-86
15689731
Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006 Sep;256 Suppl 1:i3-11
16977549
Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2002 Jun;5(2):111-3
12135534
Sleep. 2007 Feb;30(2):195-201
17326545
Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004 Jan 7;73(1):87-97
14687963
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008 Sep;49(9):942-9
18564071
Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008 Jul;23(4):228-31
18446088
Lipids Health Dis. 2007 Sep 18;6:21
17877810
J Clin Psychiatry. 2006 Apr;67(4):524-40
16669717
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004 Oct;43(10):1267-75
15381894
J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 Jul;68(7):1109-16
17685750
Expert Rev Neurother. 2008 Apr;8(4):611-25
18416663
Biol Psychiatry. 2005 Mar 1;57(5):456-63
15737659
Br J Psychiatry. 2009 Mar;194(3):204-11
19252145
Psychol Bull. 2006 Jul;132(4):560-81
16822167
Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002 May;156(5):504-11
11980558
Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2000 Jul;9(3):711-26
10944664
J Clin Psychol. 2005 May;61(5):607-19
15723366
Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2001 Dec;3(6):497-506
11707164
J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 Aug;68(8):e20
17876905
PLoS One. 2010 May 12;5(5):e10621
20485550
Biol Psychiatry. 2006 Nov 15;60(10):1081-7
16876139
Arch Neurol. 1989 Jan;46(1):48-52
2783366
Clin Pharmacokinet. 2001;40(10):753-72
11707061
Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1992;368:1-40
1642137
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001 Feb;40(2):137-46
11214601
Alcohol Alcohol. 2007 Nov-Dec;42(6):539-43
17766314
Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004 Mar;7(1):77-97
14733627
Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2004 Jun;27(2):323-47
15064000
Neuroimage. 2008 Feb 1;39(3):1266-73
18024160
Postgrad Med. 2008 Sep;120(3):27-38
18824823
N Engl J Med. 1990 Nov 15;323(20):1361-6
2233902
Expert Rev Neurother. 2006 Apr;6(4):455-68
16623645
J Clin Psychol. 2005 May;61(5):621-5
15723361
Biol Psychiatry. 2005 Feb 1;57(3):229-38
15691523
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000 Dec;39(12):1512-9
11128328
J Psychopharmacol. 2006 Sep;20(5):602-10
16478756
J Atten Disord. 2007 Sep;11(2):106-13
17709814
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1976 Dec;33(12):1453-60
793563
J Subst Abuse Treat. 2006 Apr;30(3):253-9
16616170
Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2000 Jul;9(3):573-603, viii
10944658
Can J Psychiatry. 2003 Sep;48(8):546-54
14574830
J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64 Suppl 11:14-8
14529325
Nord J Psychiatry. 2006;60(1):38-43
16500798
Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Feb;158(2):282-8
11156812
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008 Mar;47(3):339-349
18216729
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995 Jun;52(6):456-63
7771915
Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Jun;162(6):1067-75
15930054
Expert Rev Neurother. 2007 Oct;7(10):1337-56
17939771
J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2004 Fall;14(3):448-54
15650502
Am J Addict. 2005 Mar-Apr;14(2):179-87
16019966
Expert Rev Neurother. 2005 Jul;5(4):525-39
16026236
Neuromolecular Med. 2006;8(4):461-84
17028370
Psychiatry Res. 1996 Jun 1;62(3):213-9
8804131
J Psychiatr Res. 2009 Apr;43(7):697-701
19007940
Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2001 Aug 4;145(31):1498-501
11512422
Psychol Med. 2007 Jan;37(1):97-107
16938146
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997 Sep;36(9):1222-7
9291723
Compr Psychiatry. 2002 Sep-Oct;43(5):369-77
12216012
Am J Psychiatry. 2010 Aug;167(8):958-68
20231319
Am J Psychiatry. 2000 May;157(5):816-8
10784477
Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001 Jun;931:1-16
11462736
J Psychopharmacol. 2009 Sep;23(7):733-44
18562416
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992 Mar;31(2):343-8
1564037
Occup Environ Med. 2008 Dec;65(12):835-42
18505771
Curr Med Res Opin. 2005 Feb;21(2):195-206
15801990
Psychol Med. 2005 Jun;35(6):817-27
15997602
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996 Sep;35(9):1213-26
8824065
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010 Nov;67(11):1159-67
21041617
Br J Psychiatry. 2009 Mar;194(3):273-7
19252159
Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2005 Sep;1(3):245-51
18568102
Psychophysiology. 2007 Nov;44(6):936-48
17666028
Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Apr;163(4):716-23
16585449
Subst Use Misuse. 2005;40(13-14):1955-81, 2043-8
16282088
Am J Psychiatry. 1993 Dec;150(12):1792-8
8238632
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2010 Feb;51(2):116-33
19891745
BMJ. 2008 Sep 24;337:a1239
18815170
Am J Addict. 1998 Spring;7(2):156-63
9598219
J Manag Care Pharm. 2003 Sep-Oct;9(5):416-23
14613439
J Psychopharmacol. 1998;12(4):385-95
10065914
South Med J. 2006 Aug;99(8):802-5
16929872
Neurology. 2009 Oct 27;73(17):1406-12
19776378
Compr Psychiatry. 1990 Sep-Oct;31(5):416-25
2225800
Biol Psychiatry. 2009 Jan 1;65(1):46-54
19006789