title: Parental history of depression or anxiety and the cortisol awakening response.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  It is unclear whether altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis regulation, which frequently accompanies depression and anxiety disorders, represents a trait rather than a state factor.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To examine whether HPA axis dysregulation represents a biological vulnerability for these disorders, we compared cortisol levels in unaffected people with and without a parental history of depressive or anxiety disorders. We additionally examined whether possible HPA axis dysregulations resemble those observed in participants with depression or anxiety disorders.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data were from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety. Within the participants without a lifetime diagnoses of depression or anxiety disorders, three groups were distinguished: 180 people without parental history, 114 with self-reported parental history and 74 with CIDI-diagnosed parental history. These groups were additionally compared with people with major depressive disorder or panic disorder with agoraphobia (n = 1262). Salivary cortisol samples were obtained upon awakening, and 30, 45 and 60 min later.
  
  
  RESULTS
  As compared with unaffected participants without parental history, unaffected individuals with diagnosed parental history of depression or anxiety showed a significantly higher cortisol awakening curve (effect size (d) = 0.50), which was similar to that observed in the participants with depression or anxiety disorders. Unaffected people with self-reported parental history did not differ in awakening cortisol levels from unaffected people without parental history.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Unaffected individuals with parental history of depression or anxiety showed a higher cortisol awakening curve, similar to that of the participants with depression or anxiety disorders. This suggests that a higher cortisol awakening curve reflects a trait marker, indicating an underlying biological vulnerability for the development of depressive and anxiety disorders.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry and the EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research, VU University Medical Center Amsterdam, The Netherlands. s.vreeburg@ggzingeest.nl
authors.forename: Sophie A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Vreeburg
authors.forename: Catharina A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Hartman
authors.forename: Witte J G
authors.initials: WJ
authors.lastname: Hoogendijk
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: van Dyck
authors.forename: Frans G
authors.initials: FG
authors.lastname: Zitman
authors.forename: Johan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Ormel
authors.forename: Brenda W J H
authors.initials: BW
authors.lastname: Penninx
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001008:Anxiety Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D019540:Area Under Curve; D002648:Child; D016241:Child of Impaired Parents; D002940:Circadian Rhythm / Q000502:physiology; D015897:Comorbidity; D003866:Depressive Disorder / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D004198:Disease Susceptibility; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000032:analysis*; D007030:Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System / Q000503:physiopathology; D007406:Interview, Psychological; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D010290:Parents / Q000523:psychology; D010641:Phenotype; D010913:Pituitary-Adrenal System / Q000503:physiopathology; D012307:Risk Factors; D012463:Saliva / Q000737:chemistry*; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D006854:Hydrocortisone