title: Floral ontogeny of Annonaceae: evidence for high variability in floral form.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Annonaceae are one of the largest families of Magnoliales. This study investigates the comparative floral development of 15 species to understand the basis for evolutionary changes in the perianth, androecium and carpels and to provide additional characters for phylogenetic investigation.
  
  
  METHODS
  Floral ontogeny of 15 species from 12 genera is examined and described using scanning electron microscopy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Initiation of the three perianth whorls is either helical or unidirectional. Merism is mostly trimerous, occasionally tetramerous and the members of the inner perianth whorl may be missing or are in double position. The androecium and the gynoecium were found to be variable in organ numbers (from highly polymerous to a fixed number, six in the androecium and one or two in the gynoecium). Initiation of the androecium starts invariably with three pairs of stamen primordia along the sides of the hexagonal floral apex. Although inner staminodes were not observed, they were reported in other genera and other families of Magnoliales, except Magnoliaceae and Myristicaceae. Initiation of further organs is centripetal. Androecia with relatively low stamen numbers have a whorled phyllotaxis throughout, while phyllotaxis becomes irregular with higher stamen numbers. The limits between stamens and carpels are unstable and carpels continue the sequence of stamens with a similar variability.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  It was found that merism of flowers is often variable in some species with fluctuations between trimery and tetramery. Doubling of inner perianth parts is caused by (unequal) splitting of primordia, contrary to the androecium, and is independent of changes of merism. Derived features, such as a variable merism, absence of the inner perianth and inner staminodes, fixed numbers of stamen and carpels, and capitate or elongate styles are distributed in different clades and evolved independently. The evolution of the androecium is discussed in the context of basal angiosperms: paired outer stamens are the consequence of the transition between the larger perianth parts and much smaller stamens, and not the result of splitting. An increase in stamen number is correlated with their smaller size at initiation, while limits between stamens and carpels are unclear with easy transitions of one organ type into another in some genera, or the complete replacement of carpels by stamens in unisexual flowers.
authors.affiliation: South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 723 Xinke Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, China.
authors.forename: Fengxia
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Xu
authors.forename: Louis
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Ronse De Craene
mesh_terms: D029061:Annonaceae / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D005075:Biological Evolution; D035264:Flowers / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning
references.citation: Am J Bot. 2009 Jan;96(1):22-66
references.pmid: 21628175
references.citation: Ann Bot. 2007 Sep;100(3):621-30
references.pmid: 17513305
references.citation: Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2007 Feb;10(1):52-7
references.pmid: 17140838
references.citation: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2004 Oct 29;359(1450):1495-508
references.pmid: 15519968
references.citation: Int J Plant Sci. 2000 Jan;161(1):23-41
references.pmid: 10648192