title: Neurobiological substrates of Tourette's disorder.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This article reviews the available scientific literature concerning the neurobiological substrates of Tourette's disorder (TD).
  
  
  METHODS
  The electronic databases of PubMed, ScienceDirect, and PsycINFO were searched for relevant studies using relevant search terms.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Neuropathological as well as structural and functional neuroimaging studies of TD implicate not only the sensorimotor corticostriatal circuit, but also the limbic and associative circuits as well. Preliminary evidence also points to abnormalities in the frontoparietal network that is thought to maintain adaptive online control. Evidence supporting abnormalities in dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurotransmission remains strong, although the precise mechanisms remain the subject of speculation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Structural and functional abnormalities in multiple parallel corticostriatal circuits may underlie the behavioral manifestations of TD and related neuropsychiatric disorders over the course of development. Further longitudinal research is needed to elucidate these neurobiological substrates.
authors.affiliation: Child Study Center, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-7900, USA. james.leckman@yale.edu
authors.forename: James F
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Leckman
authors.forename: Michael H
authors.initials: MH
authors.lastname: Bloch
authors.forename: Megan E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.forename: Daouia
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Larabi
authors.forename: Michelle
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hampson
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003342:Corpus Striatum / Q000503:physiopathology; D004298:Dopamine / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D018377:Neurotransmitter Agents / Q000378:metabolism; D009638:Norepinephrine / Q000378:metabolism*; D005879:Tourette Syndrome / Q000503:physiopathology*
chemical_list: D018377:Neurotransmitter Agents; D004298:Dopamine; D009638:Norepinephrine
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