title: Histology and function: analyzing the uvular muscle.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Virtual surgery and virtual patients necessitate quantitative data on the area of interest. The study was conducted to exactly describe the embryonic and fetal uvular muscle (MU), relevant for clinical as well as virtual surgery and virtual patient generation.
  
  
  METHODS
  Serially sectioned viscerocrania of 10 aborted embryos and fetuses underwent three-dimensional reconstruction to obtain detailed anatomic data and perform finite element analyses.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The MU was paired in 80% of cases, while 20% allowed no clear-cut distinction. The MU merged with the levator muscle beneath the palatal aponeurosis without a hard palate insertion. Superior longitudinal central fibers ran below the nasal mucosa, and few circular peripheral fibers crossed in the central third to the contralateral side. This was seen in 30% of the paired muscles and in all cases when no differentiation was possible; about 40% to 80% MU fibers crossed to the ipsilateral and contralateral palatopharyngeus muscle behind the levator loop. MU fibers inserted 60% nasal and 40% oral to the basal membrane at the middle third of the macroscopic uvula, made of loose connective tissue and salivary glands. The results of the finite element simulation of the uvula showed no distinct patterns or distributions of local stress.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Detailed anatomical study supported the concept of mediocranial MU repositioning during corrective surgery, although the impact is minor to the levator muscle's action. Future mathematical models describing effects of such a maneuver should integrate surrounding structures.
authors.forename: Constantin A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Landes
authors.forename: Frank
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Weichert
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Steinbauer
authors.forename: Lars
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Walczak
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hasenfus
authors.forename: Christian
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Veith
authors.forename: Andreas
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Schröder
authors.forename: Helga
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Fritsch
authors.forename: Dirk
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Theegarten
authors.forename: Mathias
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wagner
mesh_terms: D016477:Artifacts; D002102:Cadaver; D005205:Fascia / Q000196:embryology; D005333:Fetus / Q000196:embryology*; D020342:Finite Element Analysis; D006801:Humans; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional; D010156:Palatal Muscles / Q000196:embryology*; D010609:Pharyngeal Muscles / Q000196:embryology*; D013194:Staining and Labeling; D014609:Uvula / Q000196:embryology*