Aquatic toxicity of magnesium sulfate, and the influence of calcium, in very low ionic concentration water.
The toxicity of magnesium sulfate (MgSO(4)), and the influence of calcium (Ca), were assessed in very soft freshwater (natural Magela Creek water [NMCW]) using six freshwater species (Chlorella sp., Lemna aequinoctialis, Amerianna cumingi, Moinodaphnia macleayi, Hydra viridissima, and Mogurnda mogurnda). The study involved five stages: toxicity of MgSO(4) in NMCW, determination of the toxic ion, influence of Ca on Mg toxicity, toxicity of MgSO(4) at an Mg:Ca mass ratio of 9:1, and derivation of water quality guideline values for Mg. The toxicity of MgSO(4) was higher than previously reported, with chronic median inhibition concentration (IC50)/acute median lethal concentration (LC50) values ranging from 4 to 1,215 mg/L, as Mg. Experiments exposing the 3 most sensitive species (L. aequinoctialis, H. viridissima, and A. cumingi) to Na(2)SO(4) and MgCl(2) confirmed that Mg was the toxic ion. Additionally, Ca was shown to have an ameliorative effect on Mg toxicity. For L. aequinoctialis and H. viridissima, Mg toxicity at the IC50 concentration was eliminated at Mg:Ca (mass) ratios of < or =10:1 and < or =9:1, respectively. For A. cumingi, a 10 to 30% effect persisted at the IC50 concentration at Mg:Ca ratios <9:1. The toxicity of MgSO(4) in NMCW at a constant Mg:Ca ratio of 9:1 was lower than at background Ca, with chronic IC50/acute LC50 values from 96 to 4,054 mg/L, as Mg. Water quality guideline values for Mg (to protect 99% of species) at Mg:Ca mass ratios of >9:1 and < or =9:1 were 0.8 and 2.5 mg/L, respectively. Magnesium can be toxic at concentrations approaching natural background levels, but toxicity is dependent on Ca concentrations, with exposure in very low ionic concentration, Ca-deficient waters posing the greatest risk to aquatic life.
van Dam
Rick A
RA
Environmental Research Institute of the Supervising Scientist, Supervising Scientist Division, Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, P.O. Box 461, Darwin, Northern Territory 0801, Australia.
Hogan
Alicia C
AC
Environmental Research Institute of the Supervising Scientist, Supervising Scientist Division, Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, P.O. Box 461, Darwin, Northern Territory 0801, Australia.
McCullough
Cherie D
CD
Edith Cowan University, Centre for Ecosystem Management, Joondalup, Western Australia 6027, Australia.
Houston
Melanie A
MA
Environmental Research Institute of the Supervising Scientist, Supervising Scientist Division, Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, P.O. Box 461, Darwin, Northern Territory 0801, Australia.
Humphrey
Chris L
CL
Environmental Research Institute of the Supervising Scientist, Supervising Scientist Division, Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, P.O. Box 461, Darwin, Northern Territory 0801, Australia.
Harford
Andrew J
AJ
Environmental Research Institute of the Supervising Scientist, Supervising Scientist Division, Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, P.O. Box 461, Darwin, Northern Territory 0801, Australia.
D000818:Animals; D002118:Calcium / Q000494:pharmacology*; D002708:Chlorella / Q000187:drug effects; D033361:Cladocera / Q000187:drug effects; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000032:analysis; D006829:Hydra / Q000187:drug effects; D008278:Magnesium Sulfate / Q000633:toxicity*; D011786:Quality Control; D012908:Snails / Q000187:drug effects; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000633:toxicity*
D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D008278:Magnesium Sulfate; D002118:Calcium
Banks D, Younger PL, Arnesen RT, Iversen ER, Banks SB. 1997. Mine-water chemistry: The good, the bad and the ugly. Environ Geol 32: 157-174.
Schmiermund RL, Drozd MA. 1997. Acid mine drainage and other mining influenced waters. In Marcus JJ, ed., Mining Environmental Handbook: Effects of Mining on the Environment and American Environmental Controls on Mining. Imperial College, London, UK, pp 599-617.
Méndez-Ortiz BA, Carrillo-Chávez A, Monroy-Fernández MG. 2007. Acid rock drainage and metal leaching from mine waste material (tailings) of a Pb-Zn-Ag skarn deposit: Environmental assessment through static and kinetic laboratory tests. Rev Mexicana Ciencias Geol 24: 161-169.
Wallen IE, Greer WC, Lasater R. 1957. Toxicity to Gambusia affinis of certain pure chemicals in turbid waters. Sewage Ind Wastes 29: 695-711.
Dooren de Jong LE. 1965. Tolerance of Chlorella vulgaris for metallic and non-metallic ions. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 31: 301-313.
Dowden BF, Bennett HJ. 1965. Toxicity of selected chemicals to certain animals. Res J Water Pollut C 37: 1308-1316.
Khangarot BS. 1991. Toxicity of metals to a freshwater tubificid worm, Tubifex tubifex (Muller). Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 46: 906-912.
Khangarot BS, Ray PK. 1989. Investigation of correlation between physicochemical properties of metals and their toxicity to the water flea Daphnia magna Straus. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 18: 109-120.
Mount DR, Gulley DD, Hockett JR, Garrison TD, Evans JM. 1997. Statistical models to predict the toxicity of major ions to Ceriodaphnia dubia and Pimephales promelas (fathead minnows). Environ Toxicol Chem 16: 2009-2019.
Markich SJ, Jeffree RA. 1994. Absorption of divalent trace metals as analogues of calcium by Australian freshwater bivalves: An explanation of how water hardness reduces metal toxicity. Aquat Toxicol 29: 257-290.
Heaton FW. 1993. Distribution and function of magnesium within the cell. In Birch NJ, ed, Magnesium and the Cell. Academic, London, UK, pp 121-135.
Wolf FI, Cittadini A. 2003. Chemistry and biochemistry of magnesium. Mol Aspects Med 24: 3-9.
Clarkson DT, Hanson JB. 1980. The mineral nutrition of higher plants. Annu Rev Plant Phys 31: 239-298.
Howarth RW, Stewart JWB. 1992. The interaction of sulphur with other element cycles in ecosystems. In Howarth RW, Stewart JWB, Ivanov MV, eds, Sulphur Cycling on the Continents. John Wiley, Chichester, UK, pp 67-84.
Purves WK, Orians GH, Heller HC. 1992. Life: The Science of Biology, 3rd ed. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA, USA.
Noller BN. 1991. Non-radiological contaminants from uranium mining and milling at Ranger, Jabiru, Northern Territory, Australia. Environ Monit Assess 19: 383-400.
van Dam RA, Humphrey CL, Martin P. 2002. Mining in the Alligator Rivers Region, northern Australia: Assessing potential and actual effects on ecosystem and human health. Toxicology 181-182: 505-515.
O'Connor R, Humphrey CL, Dostine P, Lynch C, Spiers A. 1995. A survey of aquatic macroinvertebrates in lentic waterbodies of Magela and Nourlangie Creek catchments, Alligator Rivers Region, Northern Territory. Internal Report 225. Supervising Scientist for the Alligator Rivers Region, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.
O'Connor R, Humphrey CL, Dostine P, Lynch C, Klessa B. 1997. A survey of aquatic macroinvertebrates in lentic waterbodies of Magela and Nourlangie Creek catchments, Alligator Rivers Region, Northern Territory: Second year of data 1996. Internal Report 242. Supervising Scientist for the Alligator Rivers Region, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.
Reid DS, Dockray JJ, Linton TK, McDonald DG, Wood CM. 1995. Effects of a summer temperature regime representative of a global warming scenario on growth and protein synthesis in hardwater- and softwater-acclimated juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). J Therm Biol 20: 231-244.
United Nations Environment Program Global Environmental Monitoring System/Water Programme (UNEP/GEMS). 2008. Water Quality for Ecosystem and Human Health 2nd ed. UNEP c/o National Water Research Institute, Burlington, ON, Canada, pp 120.
Riethmuller N, Camilleri C, Franklin N, Hogan AC, King A, Koch A, Markich SJ, Turley C, van Dam RA. 2003. Ecotoxicological testing protocols for Australian tropical freshwater ecosystems. Supervising Scientist Report 173. Supervising Scientist, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia, pp 140.
Houston M, Hogan A, van Dam R, Nou S. 2007. Procedure for the 96 hour gastropod reproduction toxicity test using Amerianna cumingi. Internal Report 525. Supervising Scientist Division, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.
Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand (ANZECC/ARMCANZ). 2000. Australian and New Zealand guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality. Paper No. 4 -National Water Quality Management Strategy. Canberra, Australia, pp 317.
Shao Q. 2000. Estimation for hazardous concentrations based on NOEC toxicity data: An alternative approach. Environmetrics 11: 583-595.
Hose GC, van den Brink PJ. 2005. Confirming the species-sensitivity distribution concept for endosulfan using laboratory, mesocosm, and field data. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 47: 511-520.
Soucek DJ, Kennedy AJ. 2005. Effects of hardness, chloride and acclimation on the acute toxicity of sulfate to freshwater invertebrates. Environ Toxicol Chem 24: 1204-1210.
Davies TD, Hall KJ. 2007. Importance of calcium in modifying the acute toxicity of sodium sulfate to Hyalella azteca and Daphnia magna. Environ Toxicol Chem 26: 1243-1247.
Soucek DJ. 2007. Comparison of hardness- and chloride-regulated acute effects of sodium sulfate on two freshwater crustaceans. Environ Toxicol Chem 26: 773-779.
Goetsch PA, Palmer CG. 1997. Salinity tolerances of selected macroinvertebrates of the Sabie River, Kruger National Park, South Africa. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 32: 32-41.
Hardwick LL, Jones MR, Brautbar N, Lee DBN. 1991. Magnesium absorption: Mechanisms and the influence of Vitamin D, calcium and phosphate. J Nutr 121: 13-23.
Iseri LT, French JH. 1984. Magnesium: Nature's physiological calcium blocker. Am Heart J 108: 188-193.
Rubin RP. 1970. The role of calcium in the release of neurotransmitter substances and hormones. Pharmacol Rev 22: 389-427.
Gitter AH, Oliver D, Thurm U. 2003. Calcium- and voltage-dependence of nematocyst discharge in Hydra vulgaris. J Comp Physiol A 175: 115-122.
Kawaii S, Yamashita K, Nakai M, Takahashi M, Fusetani N. 1999. Calcium dependence of settlement and nematocyst discharge in actinulae of the hydroid Tubularia mesembryanthemum. Biol Bull (Woods Hole) 196: 45-51.
Mordes JP, Wacker WEC. 1978. Excess magnesium. Pharmacol Rev 29: 273-300.
Topf JM, Murray PT. 2003. Hypomagnesemia and hypermagnesemia. Rev Endo Metab Dis 4: 195-206.
O'Kelley JC. 1968. Mineral nutrition of algae. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 19: 89-112.
Gerloff GC. 1969. Comparative mineral nutrition of plants. Annu Rev Plant Physiol 14: 107-124.
Jeziorski A, Yan NF, Paterson AM, DeSeallas AM, Turner MA, Jeffries DS, Keller B, Weeber RC, McNicol DK, Palmer ME, McIver K, Arseneau K, Ginn BK, Cumming BF, Smol JP. 2008. The widespread threat of calcium decline in fresh waters. Science 28: 1374-1377.