The effects of maternal postnatal depression and child sex on academic performance at age 16 years: a developmental approach.
BACKGROUND
Postnatal depression (PND) is associated with poor cognitive functioning in infancy and the early school years; long-term effects on academic outcome are not known.


METHODS
Children of postnatally depressed (N = 50) and non-depressed mothers (N = 39), studied from infancy, were followed up at 16 years. We examined the effects on General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) exam performance of maternal depression (postnatal and subsequent) and IQ, child sex and earlier cognitive development, and mother-child interactions, using structural equation modelling (SEM).


RESULTS
Boys, but not girls, of PND mothers had poorer GCSE results than control children. This was principally accounted for by effects on early child cognitive functioning, which showed strong continuity from infancy. PND had continuing negative effects on maternal interactions through childhood, and these also contributed to poorer GCSE performance. Neither chronic, nor recent, exposure to maternal depression had significant effects.


CONCLUSIONS
The adverse effects of PND on male infants' cognitive functioning may persist through development. Continuing difficulties in mother-child interactions are also important, suggesting that both early intervention and continuing monitoring of mothers with PND may be warranted.
Murray
Lynne
L
University of Reading, UK University of Cambridge, UK. lynne.murray@rdg.ac.uk
Arteche
Adriane
A
Fearon
Pasco
P
Halligan
Sarah
S
Croudace
Tim
T
Cooper
Peter
P
D000124:Achievement; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002648:Child; D002657:Child Development; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003071:Cognition; D019052:Depression, Postpartum / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007360:Intelligence; D007361:Intelligence Tests; D008297:Male; D008961:Models, Structural; D009034:Mother-Child Relations; D009035:Mothers / Q000523:psychology*; D011247:Pregnancy; D012737:Sex Factors; D013997:Time Factors