title: The diagnosis and treatment of acute pulmonary embolism.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a cardiovascular emergency with high morbidity and mortality.
  
  
  METHODS
  Review of relevant literature retrieved by a selective Medline search, including current guidelines.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Hemodynamically unstable patients are considered to have high-risk PE, whereas hemodynamically stable patients are considered to have non-high-risk PE. After classification into one of these two risk groups, patients undergo further diagnostic evaluation for PE according to the appropriate risk-adapted algorithm. Patients who are in cardiogenic shock or have persistent arterial hypotension (high-risk PE) should undergo multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) or echocardiography at once, so that a PE, if present, can be treated immediately by thrombolysis. For hemodynamically stable patients with non-high-risk PE the proper diagnostic strategy is determined by the clinical probability of PE, which can be calculated with the aid of validated scoring systems and is based on both MDCT and D-dimer levels. For further risk stratification in hemodynamically stable patients, tests are performed to detect right ventricular dysfunction or myocardial injury, either of which indicates intermediate-risk PE. In addition to specific therapy, patients with high-risk PE, patients at high risk for hemorrhage and these with severe renal insufficiency should be anticoagulated with unfractionated heparin. All other patients should be treated with low-molecular-weight heparin or fondaparinux. Thereafter, long-term oral anticoagulation with vitamin K antagonists is recommended.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Modern algorithms have considerably simplified the diagnosis and treatment of acute PE. It would be desirable for these algorithms to be rapidly implemented in routine practice, because speedy diagnosis and immediate treatment can lower the morbidity and mortality associated with PE.
authors.affiliation: Klinik für Anästhesiologie, Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Germany.
authors.forename: Alexander
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Schellhaass
authors.forename: Andreas
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Walther
authors.forename: Stavros
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Konstantinides
authors.forename: Bernd W
authors.initials: BW
authors.lastname: Böttiger
mesh_terms: D000208:Acute Disease; D000925:Anticoagulants / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D004452:Echocardiography / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D011655:Pulmonary Embolism / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000188:drug therapy*; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed / Q000379:methods*
chemical_list: D000925:Anticoagulants