What's in the pool? A comprehensive identification of disinfection by-products and assessment of mutagenicity of chlorinated and brominated swimming pool water.
BACKGROUND
Swimming pool disinfectants and disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been linked to human health effects, including asthma and bladder cancer, but no studies have provided a comprehensive identification of DBPs in the water and related that to mutagenicity.


OBJECTIVE
We performed a comprehensive identification of DBPs and disinfectant species in waters from public swimming pools in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, that disinfect with either chlorine or bromine and we determined the mutagenicity of the waters to compare with the analytical results.


METHODS
We used gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to measure trihalomethanes in water, GC with electron capture detection for air, low- and high-resolution GC/MS to comprehensively identify DBPs, photometry to measure disinfectant species (free chlorine, monochloroamine, dichloramine, and trichloramine) in the waters, and an ion chromatography method to measure trichloramine in air. We assessed mutagenicity with the Salmonella mutagenicity assay.


RESULTS
We identified > 100 DBPs, including many nitrogen-containing DBPs that were likely formed from nitrogen-containing precursors from human inputs, such as urine, sweat, and skin cells. Many DBPs were new and have not been reported previously in either swimming pool or drinking waters. Bromoform levels were greater in brominated than in chlorinated pool waters, but we also identified many brominated DBPs in the chlorinated waters. The pool waters were mutagenic at levels similar to that of drinking water (approximately 1,200 revertants/L-equivalents in strain TA100-S9 mix).


CONCLUSIONS
This study identified many new DBPs not identified previously in swimming pool or drinking water and found that swimming pool waters are as mutagenic as typical drinking waters.
Richardson
Susan D
SD
National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30606, USA. richardson.susan@epa.gov
DeMarini
David M
DM
Kogevinas
Manolis
M
Fernandez
Pilar
P
Marco
Esther
E
Lourencetti
Carolina
C
Ballesté
Clara
C
Heederik
Dick
D
Meliefste
Kees
K
McKague
A Bruce
AB
Marcos
Ricard
R
Font-Ribera
Laia
L
Grimalt
Joan O
JO
Villanueva
Cristina M
CM
D000328:Adult; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000378:metabolism; D002700:Chloramines / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D002713:Chlorine / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D004202:Disinfectants / Q000032:analysis* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D004203:Disinfection; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D008401:Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry; D006801:Humans; D019570:Inhalation Exposure / Q000032:analysis; D009152:Mutagenicity Tests; D009153:Mutagens / Q000032:analysis* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D012475:Salmonella / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics; D013030:Spain; D013551:Swimming Pools / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D022882:Trihalomethanes / Q000032:analysis* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D014877:Water Pollution, Chemical / Q000706:statistics & numerical data
D015415:Biomarkers; D002700:Chloramines; D004202:Disinfectants; D009153:Mutagens; D022882:Trihalomethanes; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D002713:Chlorine; C030816:chloramine