title: Characterization of progressive keratitis in otariids.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To characterize a form of progressive keratitis that occurs commonly in otariids.
  
  
  METHODS
  One hundred and thirteen captive otariids were evaluated by ophthalmologic examination and digital photography.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Forty-six females and 67 males were in the reference population, average age of 14 years. California sea lions predominated (n = 100); there were also six Steller sea lions, five brown fur seals, one Guadalupe fur seal and one northern fur seal. Three stages of progressive keratitis are described. Overall, 64.6% animals and 142 eyes from 113 animals (62.8%) were affected with one of three stages. The mildest form, Stage 1 keratitis, occurred in 78 of 226 eyes (34.5%); the intermediate Stage 2 keratitis occurred in 30 of 226 eyes (13.3%); and the most severe, Stage 3 keratitis, occurred in 34 of 226 eyes (15%). All but six animals had bilateral disease. Animals with Stage 1 keratitis were significantly younger than those in more advanced stages.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  'Otariid Keratitis' occurs in all populations of eared seals evaluated. A large-scale epidemiological study is ongoing to identify the risk factors that contribute to this disease. Exposure to chronic sunlight appears to be an important risk factor as shade diminishes clinical signs; animals kept out of sunlight the majority of the time have less severe clinical signs. Age may be important since exposure accumulates with aging. Progression of the disease is also associated with secondary opportunistic bacterial and fungal infections. The surface immune system may be imbalanced contributing to these infections and progression.
authors.affiliation: Aquatic Animal Eye Care LLC, Jupiter, Florida, USA. ccolitz@gmail.com
authors.forename: Carmen M H
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Colitz
authors.forename: Michael S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Renner
authors.forename: Charles A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Manire
authors.forename: Bethany
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Doescher
authors.forename: Todd L
authors.initials: TL
authors.lastname: Schmitt
authors.forename: Steven D
authors.initials: SD
authors.lastname: Osborn
authors.forename: Lara
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Croft
authors.forename: June
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Olds
authors.forename: Erica
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Gehring
authors.forename: June
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mergl
authors.forename: Allison D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Tuttle
authors.forename: Meg
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sutherland-Smith
authors.forename: Jens Christian
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Rudnick
mesh_terms: D000375:Aging; D000818:Animals; D000836:Animals, Zoo; D005260:Female; D046069:Fur Seals; D007634:Keratitis / Q000473:pathology / Q000662:veterinary*; D008297:Male; D046070:Sea Lions