Long-term effects of implementation intentions on prevention of smoking uptake among adolescents: a cluster randomized controlled trial.
OBJECTIVE
To test the efficacy of implementation intentions in reducing smoking uptake in a sample of adolescents.


METHODS
Classes of adolescents (aged 11-12 years) were randomly allocated to one of four conditions: implementation intention, self-efficacy, two control conditions. An implementation intention or a self-efficacy manipulation (both formed in relation to how to refuse offers of cigarettes) was completed by intervention condition participants at 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, and 24 months.


METHODS
Long-term smoking behavior (self-report and objective) was assessed at 48 months post-baseline.


RESULTS
There were no differences between the two control conditions and the self-efficacy condition. Controlling for baseline smoking, sex, attitudes to smoking, friends and family smoking, and the multilevel nature of the data, intention-to-treat analyses indicated the implementation intention manipulation significantly reduced self-reported smoking compared to the other three conditions combined. Analyses on objectively assessed smoking (carbon monoxide breath measure) in a random subsample of participants also indicated that the implementation intention manipulation compared to the other three conditions significantly reduced smoking.


CONCLUSIONS
Implementation intentions can reduce smoking in adolescent samples. Implications for using implementation intentions to reduce smoking in adolescents are discussed.
Conner
Mark
M
Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, LEEDS, United Kingdom. m.t.conner@leeds.ac.uk
Higgins
Andrea R
AR
D000293:Adolescent; D017668:Age of Onset; D001290:Attitude; D001521:Behavior Therapy; D002648:Child; D016000:Cluster Analysis; D005190:Family; D005260:Female; D006040:Goals; D006801:Humans; D033182:Intention; D008297:Male; D009042:Motivation; D010379:Peer Group; D020377:Self Efficacy; D057566:Self Report; D012907:Smoking / Q000523:psychology; D000074606:Smoking Prevention; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013995:Time; D006113:United Kingdom