title: Lead poisoning from use of bronze drinking vessels during the late Chinese Shang dynasty: an in vitro experiment.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Bronze drinking vessels famous for their intricate carvings and used by the aristocracy in the Chinese Shang dynasty (1555-1145 BCE) are known to have been fabricated with alloys containing soft metallic lead. The contribution of lead leaching from such vessels into the fermented grain wines drunk by the Chinese nobility in ancient times has not been previously estimated.
  
  
  METHODS
  Three bronze vessels containing 8% lead by weight were fabricated to resemble the late Shang bronze goblets. Shaoxing drinking rice wine was purchased locally and placed in the vessels, using a white grape wine and water as comparisons. Sampling was performed at baseline, 2 min, and then at days 1, 2, 4, and 7. Lead concentrations in the liquid matrix were measured using atomic absorption spectroscopy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Significant amounts of lead leached into the liquid within one day: 13,900 μg/L in water, 45,900 μg/L in rice wine, and 116,000 μg/L in white wine. Lead continued to leach into both the grape and rice wines with the passage of time.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Significant lead contamination of Shaoxing rice wine was detected when it was left in bronze goblets fabricated to resemble the Shang dynasty vessels. If a liter of contaminated wine was drunk daily, the daily intake of lead could have been as high as 85 mg. Such a high degree of contamination could cause chronic lead poisoning, affecting the health of the Shang nobility who used bronze beverage containers, before lead was excluded from the manufacture of bronze.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, Children's Hospital Boston, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA. alan.woolf@childrens.harvard.edu
authors.forename: Alan D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Woolf
authors.forename: Terence
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Law
authors.forename: Hoi-Ying Elsie
authors.initials: HY
authors.lastname: Yu
authors.forename: Nicholas
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Woolf
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kellogg
mesh_terms: D000428:Alcohol Drinking; D005506:Food Contamination / Q000032:analysis*; D006801:Humans; D007854:Lead / Q000032:analysis*; D007855:Lead Poisoning / Q000209:etiology*; D014920:Wine / Q000032:analysis*
chemical_list: D007854:Lead