title: Hand hygiene in rural Indonesian healthcare workers: barriers beyond sinks, hand rubs and in-service training.
abstract: Few attempts to increase healthcare workers' hand hygiene compliance have included an in-depth analysis of the social and behavioural context in which hand hygiene is not undertaken. We used a mixed method approach to explore hand hygiene barriers in rural Indonesian healthcare facilities to develop a resource-appropriate adoption of international guidelines. Two hospitals and eight clinics (private and public) in a rural Indonesian district were studied for three months each. Hand hygiene compliance was covertly observed for two shifts each in three adult wards at two hospitals. Qualitative data were collected from direct observation, focus group discussions and semistructured in-depth and informal interviews within healthcare facilities and the community. Major barriers to compliance included longstanding water scarcity, tolerance of dirtiness by the community and the healthcare organisational culture. Hand hygiene compliance was poor (20%; 57/281; 95% CI: 16-25%) and was more likely to be undertaken after patient contact (34% after-patient contact vs 5% before-patient contact, P<0.001) and 'inherent' opportunities associated with contacts perceived to be dirty (49% 'inherent' vs 11% 'elective' opportunities associated with clean contacts, P<0.001). Clinicians frequently touched patients without hand hygiene, and some clinicians avoided touching patients altogether. The provision of clean soap and water and in-service training will not overcome strong social and behavioural barriers unless interventions focus on long term community education and managerial commitment to the provision of supportive working conditions.
authors.affiliation: Public Health Department, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Wijaya Kusuma Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia. b.marjadi@gmail.com
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Marjadi
authors.forename: M-L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: McLaws
mesh_terms: D003428:Cross Infection / Q000517:prevention & control; D003466:Cultural Characteristics; D005260:Female; D019983:Guideline Adherence / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D006235:Hand Disinfection / Q000379:methods / Q000592:standards*; D006282:Health Personnel / Q000193:education; D006801:Humans; D006920:Hygiene / Q000592:standards*; D007214:Indonesia; D007318:Inservice Training; D007407:Interviews as Topic; D008297:Male; D010564:Personnel, Hospital / Q000193:education; D011204:Poverty Areas; D017410:Practice Guidelines as Topic; D012424:Rural Population