title: Sex differences amongst dependent heroin users: histories, clinical characteristics and predictors of other substance dependence.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To examine differences in the characteristics and histories of male and female dependent heroin users, and in the clinical characteristics associated with multiple substance dependence diagnoses.
  
  
  METHODS
  1513 heroin dependent participants underwent an interview covering substance use and dependence, psychiatric history, child maltreatment, family background, adult violence and criminal history. Family background, demographic and clinical characteristics were analysed by sex. Ordinal regression was used to test for a relationship between number of substance dependence diagnoses and other clinical variables.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Women were more likely to experience most forms of child maltreatment, to first use heroin with a boyfriend or partner, to experience ongoing adult violence at the hands of a partner, and to have a poorer psychiatric history than men. Males had more prevalent lifetime substance dependence diagnoses and criminal histories and were more likely to meet the criteria for ASPD. Predictors of multiple substance dependence diagnoses for both sexes were mental health variables, antisocial behaviour, childhood sexual abuse, victim of adult violence, younger age at first cannabis use and overdose. As the number of dependence diagnoses increased, clinical and behavioural problems increased. Childhood emotional neglect was related to increasing dependence diagnoses for females but not males, whereas PTSD was a significant predictor for males but not females.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Mental health problems, other substance dependence, childhood and adult trauma were common in this sample, with sex differences indicating different treatment needs and possible different pathways to heroin dependence for men and women.
authors.affiliation: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia. fionas@unsw.edu.au
authors.forename: Fiona L
authors.initials: FL
authors.lastname: Shand
authors.forename: Louisa
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Degenhardt
authors.forename: Tim
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Slade
authors.forename: Elliot C
authors.initials: EC
authors.lastname: Nelson
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D016739:Behavior, Addictive / Q000523:psychology*; D002648:Child; D003415:Crime; D005195:Family Relations; D005260:Female; D006556:Heroin Dependence / Q000523:psychology*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D001523:Mental Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology; D008875:Middle Aged; D009517:New South Wales / Q000453:epidemiology; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D012737:Sex Factors; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000523:psychology; D014754:Violence