title: Breast milk-transforming growth factor-β₂ specifically attenuates IL-1β-induced inflammatory responses in the immature human intestine via an SMAD6- and ERK-dependent mechanism.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Breast milk is known to protect the infant against infectious and immuno-inflammatory diseases, but the mechanisms of this protection are poorly understood.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We hypothesized that transforming growth factor-β₂ (TGF-β₂), an immunoregulatory cytokine abundant in breast milk, may have a direct anti-inflammatory effect on immature human intestinal epithelial cells (IECs).
  
  
  METHODS
  Human fetal ileal organ culture, primary human fetal IECs, and the human fetal small intestinal epithelial cell line H4 were stimulated with interleukin 1β (IL-1β) with or without TGF-β₂. Pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion and mRNA expression were measured by ELISA and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, respectively. Alterations in ERK signalling were detected from IECs by immunoblotting and in fetal ileal tissue culture by immunohistochemistry. SMAD6 knockdown was performed by transfecting the cells with SMAD6 siRNA.
  
  
  RESULTS
  TGF-β₂ significantly attenuated IL-1β-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine production in fetal intestinal organ culture and the cell culture models. In addition, TGF-β₂ reduced the IL-1β-induced IL-8 and IL-6 mRNA response in H4 cells. TGF-β₂ markedly inhibited IL-1β-induced phosphorylation of ERK, which was necessary for the cytokine response. The inhibitory effect of TGF-β₂ on IL-1β-induced cytokine production was completely abrogated by SMAD6 siRNA knockdown.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  TGF-β₂ attenuates IL-1β-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine production in immature human IECs by inhibiting ERK signalling. The anti-inflammatory effect of TGF-β₂ is dependent on SMAD6. Breast milk TGF-β₂ may provide the neonate with important immunoregulatory support. TGF-β₂ might provide a novel means to improve intestinal immunophysiology in premature neonates.
authors.affiliation: Developmental Gastroenterology Laboratory, Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Charlestown, Mass., USA. samrau@utu.fi
authors.forename: Samuli
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Rautava
authors.forename: N Nanda
authors.initials: NN
authors.lastname: Nanthakumar
authors.forename: Alix
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Dubert-Ferrandon
authors.forename: Lei
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Lu
authors.forename: Jaana
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Rautava
authors.forename: W Allan
authors.initials: WA
authors.lastname: Walker
mesh_terms: D002460:Cell Line; D004847:Epithelial Cells / Q000166:cytology / Q000276:immunology; D048049:Extracellular Signal-Regulated MAP Kinases / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000276:immunology*; D005333:Fetus; D005419:Flavonoids / Q000494:pharmacology; D006801:Humans; D066298:In Vitro Techniques; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D053583:Interleukin-1beta / Q000276:immunology*; D015850:Interleukin-6 / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology; D016209:Interleukin-8 / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology; D007421:Intestine, Small / Q000166:cytology / Q000276:immunology*; D008895:Milk, Human / Q000276:immunology*; D047428:Protein Kinase Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology; D012333:RNA, Messenger / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics; D034741:RNA, Small Interfering / Q000494:pharmacology; D020133:Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction; D051905:Smad6 Protein / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000276:immunology*; D053781:Transforming Growth Factor beta2 / Q000494:pharmacology*
chemical_list: D005419:Flavonoids; D053583:Interleukin-1beta; D015850:Interleukin-6; D016209:Interleukin-8; D047428:Protein Kinase Inhibitors; D012333:RNA, Messenger; D034741:RNA, Small Interfering; C497802:SMAD6 protein, human; D051905:Smad6 Protein; D053781:Transforming Growth Factor beta2; D048049:Extracellular Signal-Regulated MAP Kinases; C093973:2-(2-amino-3-methoxyphenyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one