title: Multiple stressor effects of high light irradiance and photosynthetic herbicides on growth and survival of the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.
abstract: Exposure of the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Dangeard to a combination of environmental stress by high light irradiance and chemical stress by each of the three herbicides paraquat, atrazine, and norflurazon resulted in diverse multiple stressor effects on growth and survival of the cells. Under low light conditions, growth analyzed by cell numbers was generally more sensitive to herbicide treatment than optical density-based growth rates or colony-forming unit endpoints, which both also analyzed the viability of the cells. However, growth analyzed by optical density and colony-forming units in herbicide-treated cultures was affected much more strongly by high light irradiance, as shown by reduced 50% effective concentrations, indicating extensive multiple stressor effects of the combined treatment on the viability of the cells. None of the currently used concepts for mixture toxicity (concentration addition, independent action, or effect summation) could accurately describe the effects measured by the two stressors in combination. Both synergistic and antagonistic interactions seem to occur depending on the light conditions and the parameter analyzed. The strong stimulation of toxicity by the combined stresses can be explained by the similar mode of toxic action of the treatments, all increasing the production of reactive oxygen species. Antagonistic effects, conversely, are probably attributable to the various protection mechanisms of photosynthetic organisms to increased light irradiance, which help the cells acclimate to specific light conditions and defend against the deleterious effects of excess light. These protection mechanisms can affect growth and viability under increased light conditions and also might influence the toxicity of the photosynthetic herbicides.
authors.affiliation: Eawag, Department of Environmental Toxicology, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Ueberlandstrasse 133, CH-8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland. beat.fischer@eawag.ch
authors.forename: Beat B
authors.initials: BB
authors.lastname: Fischer
authors.forename: Karin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Rüfenacht
authors.forename: Kerstin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Dannenhauer
authors.forename: Manuela
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wiesendanger
authors.forename: Rik I L
authors.initials: RI
authors.lastname: Eggen
mesh_terms: D016825:Chlamydomonas reinhardtii / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000254:growth & development / Q000502:physiology; D006540:Herbicides / Q000633:toxicity*; D008027:Light; D010788:Photosynthesis / Q000187:drug effects*; D013312:Stress, Physiological
chemical_list: D006540:Herbicides