title: Hepatitis C virus core protein induces neuroimmune activation and potentiates Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 neurotoxicity.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Hepatitis C virus (HCV) genomes and proteins are present in human brain tissues although the impact of HIV/HCV co-infection on neuropathogenesis remains unclear. Herein, we investigate HCV infectivity and effects on neuronal survival and neuroinflammation in conjunction with HIV infection.
  
  
  METHODS
  Human microglia, astrocyte and neuron cultures were infected with cell culture-derived HCV or exposed to HCV core protein with or without HIV-1 infection or HIV-1 Viral Protein R (Vpr) exposure. Host immune gene expression and cell viability were measured. Patch-clamp studies of human neurons were performed in the presence or absence of HCV core protein. Neurobehavioral performance and neuropathology were examined in HIV-1 Vpr-transgenic mice in which stereotaxic intrastriatal implants of HCV core protein were performed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  HCV-encoded RNA as well as HCV core and non-structural 3 (NS3) proteins were detectable in human microglia and astrocytes infected with HCV. HCV core protein exposure induced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1β, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α in microglia (p<0.05) but not in astrocytes while increased chemokine (e.g. CXCL10 and interleukin-8) expression was observed in both microglia and astrocytes (p<0.05). HCV core protein modulated neuronal membrane currents and reduced both β-III-tubulin and lipidated LC3-II expression (p<0.05). Neurons exposed to supernatants from HCV core-activated microglia exhibited reduced β-III-tubulin expression (p<0.05). HCV core protein neurotoxicity and interleukin-6 induction were potentiated by HIV-1 Vpr protein (p<0.05). HIV-1 Vpr transgenic mice implanted with HCV core protein showed gliosis, reduced neuronal counts together with diminished LC3 immunoreactivity. HCV core-implanted animals displayed neurobehavioral deficits at days 7 and 14 post-implantation (p<0.05).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  HCV core protein exposure caused neuronal injury through suppression of neuronal autophagy in addition to neuroimmune activation. The additive neurotoxic effects of HCV- and HIV-encoded proteins highlight extrahepatic mechanisms by which HCV infection worsens the disease course of HIV infection.
authors.affiliation: Division of Neurology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
authors.forename: Pornpun
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Vivithanaporn
authors.forename: Ferdinand
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Maingat
authors.forename: Liang-Tzung
authors.initials: LT
authors.lastname: Lin
authors.forename: Hong
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Na
authors.forename: Christopher D
authors.initials: CD
authors.lastname: Richardson
authors.forename: Babita
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Agrawal
authors.forename: Eric A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Cohen
authors.forename: Jack H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Jhamandas
authors.forename: Christopher
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Power
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001253:Astrocytes / Q000166:cytology / Q000276:immunology; D001343:Autophagy; D002460:Cell Line; D016207:Cytokines / Q000276:immunology; D005260:Female; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000150:complications / Q000276:immunology* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000821:virology; D015497:HIV-1 / Q000276:immunology* / Q000502:physiology; D016174:Hepacivirus / Q000276:immunology / Q000502:physiology; D006526:Hepatitis C / Q000150:complications / Q000276:immunology* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000821:virology; D006801:Humans; D051379:Mice; D008822:Mice, Transgenic; D017628:Microglia / Q000166:cytology / Q000276:immunology; D009474:Neurons / Q000166:cytology* / Q000276:immunology; D014758:Viral Core Proteins / Q000276:immunology*
chemical_list: D016207:Cytokines; D014758:Viral Core Proteins; C069130:nucleocapsid protein, Hepatitis C virus