title: Chronic toxicity of chloride to freshwater species: effects of hardness and implications for water quality guidelines.
abstract: Toxicity tests using nine freshwater species (Ceriodaphnia dubia, Daphnia magna, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Pimephales promelas, Lumbriculus variegatus, Tubifex tubifex, Chironomus dilutus, Hyallela azteca, and Brachionus calyciflorus) were conducted to evaluate their sensitivity to chloride. Acute-to-chronic ratios (ACRs) from these tests indicate the ACR of 7.59 employed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) in deriving its water quality guideline for chloride may be conservative; a revised ACR of 3.50 is presented here. The endpoints used to calculate the ACR included 24-h to 96-h median lethal concentrations (LC50s) for acute tests, and 48-h to 54-d inhibition concentration (ICx) values for growth or reproduction for chronic exposures. Data from the present chronic toxicity tests, and other investigators, were used to propose a water quality guideline for long-term exposure to chloride using a species sensitivity distribution (SSD) approach. The 5th percentile from the SSD was calculated as 307 mg/L and proposed as the water quality guideline. Cladocerans were the most sensitive species in the dataset. Ceriodaphnia dubia was used to evaluate the relationship between water hardness and sensitivity to chloride. A strong relationship was observed and was used to establish a hardness-related equation to modify the proposed water quality guideline on the basis of water hardness, resulting in values ranging from 64 mg/L chloride at 10 mg/L hardness to 388 mg/L chloride at 160 mg/L hardness (as CaCO₃). These data suggest that current water quality guidelines for chloride may be overly conservative in water with moderate-to-high hardness, and may not be sufficiently protective under soft-water conditions.
authors.affiliation: Nautilus Environmental, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada.
authors.forename: James R F
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Elphick
authors.forename: Kelli D
authors.initials: KD
authors.lastname: Bergh
authors.forename: Howard C
authors.initials: HC
authors.lastname: Bailey
mesh_terms: D033304:Amphipoda / Q000187:drug effects; D000818:Animals; D059001:Aquatic Organisms / Q000187:drug effects*; D002683:Chironomidae / Q000187:drug effects; D002712:Chlorides / Q000032:analysis / Q000592:standards / Q000633:toxicity*; D003530:Cyprinidae; D003621:Daphnia / Q000187:drug effects; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D058735:Environmental Policy; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000737:chemistry*; D009835:Oligochaeta / Q000187:drug effects; D017686:Oncorhynchus mykiss; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012403:Rotifera / Q000187:drug effects; D023382:Toxicity Tests, Acute; D036401:Toxicity Tests, Chronic; D014481:United States; D014484:United States Environmental Protection Agency; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis / Q000592:standards / Q000633:toxicity*; D014876:Water Pollution / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence
chemical_list: D002712:Chlorides; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical