Disentangling psychobiological mechanisms underlying internalizing and externalizing behaviors in youth: longitudinal and concurrent associations with cortisol.
Research examining cortisol dysregulation is seemingly contradictory with studies showing that both internalizing and externalizing behaviors are related to high and low cortisol. One extant theory to explain divergent findings in the stress literature is that both hypo- and hyper-arousal of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis may be present depending on time since onset of the stressor. This theory may extend to the onset of internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Data from 96 youth participating in a longitudinal project were used to examine this possibility. Composite measures of internalizing and externalizing behaviors at both childhood and early adolescence were formed using mother and teacher reports. Multiple salivary cortisol samples were also collected over two consecutive days during early adolescence. Problematic behaviors were associated with cortisol and the direction of the association was dependent on amount of time passed since onset of the behaviors. When examined concurrently in adolescence, youth with more internalizing behaviors had higher morning cortisol; however, when examined longitudinally, youth with more internalizing behaviors in childhood had lower morning cortisol levels as adolescents. Youth with more externalizing behaviors in childhood had flattened diurnal cortisol rhythms as adolescents, and this finding persisted when examined in adolescence. Cortisol dysregulation was greatest in children with the most severe behavior problems. Findings support the theoretical model of blunting of the HPA axis over time. While the HPA axis may show hyper-arousal when youth first display behaviors, long-term exposure may lead to a hypo-arousal of the HPA axis which culminates in a dysregulated diurnal rhythm.
Concordia University, Psychology Department, Center for Research in Human, Development, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, PY-170, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H4B 1R6. plruttle@gmail.com
Paula L
PL
Ruttle
Elizabeth A
EA
Shirtcliff
Lisa A
LA
Serbin
Dahlia Ben-Dat
DB
Fisher
Dale M
DM
Stack
Alex E
AE
Schwartzman
D000293:Adolescent; D000374:Aggression / Q000502:physiology*; D001007:Anxiety / Q000378:metabolism*; D001143:Arousal / Q000502:physiology; D002653:Child Behavior Disorders / Q000378:metabolism*; D002940:Circadian Rhythm / Q000502:physiology; D003863:Depression / Q000378:metabolism*; D004644:Emotions; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000032:analysis / Q000378:metabolism*; D007030:Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System / Q000378:metabolism; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D015233:Models, Statistical; D010553:Personality Development; D010913:Pituitary-Adrenal System / Q000378:metabolism; D012463:Saliva / Q000737:chemistry
D006854:Hydrocortisone