title: Surveillance of adenoviruses and noroviruses in European recreational waters.
abstract: Exposure to human pathogenic viruses in recreational waters has been shown to cause disease outbreaks. In the context of Article 14 of the revised European Bathing Waters Directive 2006/7/EC (rBWD, CEU, 2006) a Europe-wide surveillance study was carried out to determine the frequency of occurrence of two human enteric viruses in recreational waters. Adenoviruses were selected based on their near-universal shedding and environmental survival, and noroviruses (NoV) selected as being the most prevalent gastroenteritis agent worldwide. Concentration of marine and freshwater samples was done by adsorption/elution followed by molecular detection by (RT)-PCR. Out of 1410 samples, 553 (39.2%) were positive for one or more of the target viruses. Adenoviruses, detected in 36.4% of samples, were more prevalent than noroviruses (9.4%), with 3.5% GI and 6.2% GII, some samples being positive for both GI and GII. Of 513 human adenovirus-positive samples, 63 (12.3%) were also norovirus-positive, whereas 69 (7.7%) norovirus-positive samples were adenovirus-negative. More freshwater samples than marine water samples were virus-positive. Out of a small selection of samples tested for adenovirus infectivity, approximately one-quarter were positive. Sixty percent of 132 nested-PCR adenovirus-positive samples analysed by quantitative PCR gave a mean value of over 3000 genome copies per L of water. The simultaneous detection of infectious adenovirus and of adenovirus and NoV by (RT)PCR suggests that the presence of infectious viruses in recreational waters may constitute a public health risk upon exposure. These studies support the case for considering adenoviruses as an indicator of bathing water quality.
authors.affiliation: IGES, University of Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, SY23 3DB, UK. pyw@aber.ac.uk
authors.forename: A Peter
authors.initials: AP
authors.lastname: Wyn-Jones
authors.forename: Annalaura
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Carducci
authors.forename: Nigel
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Cook
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: D'Agostino
authors.forename: Maurizio
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Divizia
authors.forename: Jens
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Fleischer
authors.forename: Christophe
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Gantzer
authors.forename: Andrew
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Gawler
authors.forename: Rosina
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Girones
authors.forename: Christiane
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Höller
authors.forename: Ana Maria
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: de Roda Husman
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Kay
authors.forename: Iwona
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Kozyra
authors.forename: Juan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: López-Pila
authors.forename: Michele
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Muscillo
authors.forename: Maria São José
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Nascimento
authors.forename: George
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Papageorgiou
authors.forename: Saskia
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Rutjes
authors.forename: Jane
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Sellwood
authors.forename: Regine
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Szewzyk
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wyer
mesh_terms: D000256:Adenoviridae / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005060:Europe; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000821:virology*; D029322:Norovirus / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D011998:Recreation; D020133:Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction; D012623:Seawater / Q000821:virology*; D014871:Water Microbiology