title: Analgesia in amphibians: preclinical studies and clinical applications.
abstract: Preclinical studies of analgesia in amphibians or recommendations for clinical use of analgesics in amphibian species are extremely limited. This article briefly reviews the issues surrounding the use of analgesics in amphibians, starting with common definitions of pain and analgesia when applied to nonhuman animals. Nociceptive and endogenous opioid systems in amphibians are reviewed, and results of preclinical research on opioid and nonopioid analgesics summarized. Recommended opioid and nonopioid analgesics are summarized, and practical recommendations made for their clinical use.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Oklahoma State University-Center for Health Sciences, 1111 West 17th Street, Tulsa, OK 74107, USA. cw.stevens@okstate.edu
authors.forename: Craig W
authors.initials: CW
authors.lastname: Stevens
mesh_terms: D000663:Amphibians / Q000502:physiology*; D000698:Analgesia / Q000662:veterinary*; D000700:Analgesics / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D000818:Animals; D018847:Opioid Peptides / Q000502:physiology; D010146:Pain / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000662:veterinary*
chemical_list: D000700:Analgesics; D018847:Opioid Peptides