title: Beneficial network effects of methylene blue in an amnestic model.
abstract: Posterior cingulate/retrosplenial cortex (PCC) hypometabolism is a common feature in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. In rats, PCC hypometabolism induced by mitochondrial dysfunction induces oxidative damage, neurodegeneration and memory deficits. USP methylene blue (MB) is a diaminophenothiazine drug with antioxidant and metabolic-enhancing properties. In rats, MB facilitates memory and prevents neurodegeneration induced by mitochondrial dysfunction. This study tested the memory-enhancing properties of systemic MB in rats that received an infusion of sodium azide, a cytochrome oxidase inhibitor, directly into the PCC. Lesion volumes were estimated with unbiased stereology. MB's network-level mechanism of action was analyzed using graph theory and structural equation modeling based on cytochrome oxidase histochemistry-derived metabolic mapping data. Sodium azide infusions induced PCC hypometabolism and impaired visuospatial memory in a holeboard food-search task. Isolated PCC cytochrome oxidase inhibition disrupted the cingulo-thalamo-hippocampal effective connectivity, decreased the PCC functional networks and created functional redundancy within the thalamus. An intraperitoneal dose of 4 mg/kg MB prevented the memory impairment, reduced the PCC metabolic lesion volume and partially restored the cingulo-thalamo-hippocampal network effects. The effects of MB were dependent upon the local sub-network necessary for memory retrieval. The data support that MB's metabolic-enhancing effects are contingent upon the neural context, and that MB is able to boost coherent and orchestrated adaptations in response to physical alterations to the network involved in visuospatial memory. These results implicate MB as a candidate intervention to improve memory. Because of its neuroprotective properties, MB may have disease-modifying effects in amnestic conditions associated with hypometabolism.
authors.affiliation: Departments of Psychology, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
authors.forename: Penny D
authors.initials: PD
authors.lastname: Riha
authors.forename: Julio C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Rojas
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Gonzalez-Lima
mesh_terms: D000647:Amnesia / Q000378:metabolism; D000818:Animals; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000473:pathology; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors / Q000633:toxicity; D006179:Gyrus Cinguli / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology; D008297:Male; D008751:Methylene Blue / Q000494:pharmacology*; D018696:Neuroprotective Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D051381:Rats; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D019810:Sodium Azide / Q000633:toxicity
chemical_list: D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors; D018696:Neuroprotective Agents; D019810:Sodium Azide; D008751:Methylene Blue