title: The relationship between the bone mineral density and urinary cadmium concentration of residents in an industrial complex.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  An association between cadmium exposure and bone mineral density (BMD) has been demonstrated in elderly women, but has not been well studied in youths and men. Some studies report either no or a weak association between cadmium exposure and bone damage.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This study was designed to investigate the relationship between the urinary cadmium (U-Cd) levels and BMD of females and males of all ages.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total of 804 residents near an industrial complex were surveyed in 2007. U-Cd and BMD on the heel (non-dominant calcaneus) were analyzed with AAS-GTA and Dual-Energy X-ray absorptiometry, respectively. Demographic characteristics were collected by structured questionnaires. Osteoporosis and osteopenia were defined by BMD cut-off values and T-scores set by the WHO; T score>-1, normal; -2.5<T score <-1, osteopenia; and T score <-2.5, osteoporosis. Logistic and multiple linear regressions were applied to estimate the association between U-Cd levels and BMD.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The U-Cd levels in females (0.64 μg/g creatinine) were higher than those in males (0.48 μg/g creatinine) (p<0.001). With the logistic regression model, osteopenia was associated with high U-Cd levels (≥ 1.0 μg/g creatinine) in females (OR=2.92; 95% CI, 1.51-5.64) and in males (OR=3.37; 95% CI, 1.09-10.38). With the multiple linear regression model, the BMD of the adult group was negatively associated with U-Cd (<0.05), gender (female, p<0.001) and age (p<0.001). The BMD of participants who were ≤ 19 years of age was negatively associated with gender (female, p<0.01), whereas it was positively associated with age and BMI (p<0.001). BMD was not associated with exercise, smoking habits, alcohol consumption, job or parental education.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Results suggested that U-Cd might be associated with osteopenia as well as osteoporosis in both male and female adults. Age and female gender were negatively associated with BMD in the adult group, whereas age was positively associated with BMD in the youth group. Cadmium exposure may be a potential risk factor for lower-BMD and osteopenia symptoms as well as for osteoporosis symptoms.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Health and Environment, Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Gwanak-599, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea.
authors.forename: Minah
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Shin
authors.forename: Domyung
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Paek
authors.forename: Chungsik
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Yoon
mesh_terms: D015502:Absorptiometry, Photon; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D015519:Bone Density / Q000502:physiology; D002104:Cadmium / Q000652:urine*; D002105:Cadmium Poisoning / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000652:urine*; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000032:analysis*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007723:Korea / Q000453:epidemiology; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D010024:Osteoporosis / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000652:urine; D011446:Prospective Studies; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D002104:Cadmium