title: Myocarditis in CD8-depleted SIV-infected rhesus macaques after short-term dual therapy with nucleoside and nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Although highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has dramatically reduced the morbidity and mortality associated with HIV infection, a number of antiretroviral toxicities have been described, including myocardial toxicity resulting from the use of nucleotide and nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). Current treatment guidelines recommend the use of HAART regimens containing two NRTIs for initial therapy of HIV-1 positive individuals; however, potential cardiotoxicity resulting from treatment with multiple NRTIs has not been addressed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We examined myocardial tissue from twelve CD8 lymphocyte-depleted adult rhesus macaques, including eight animals infected with simian immunodeficiency virus, four of which received combined antiretroviral therapy (CART) consisting of two NRTIs [(9-R-2-Phosphonomethoxypropyl Adenine) (PMPA) and (+/-)-beta-2',3'-dideoxy-5-fluoro-3'-thiacytidine (RCV)] for 28 days. Multifocal infiltrates of mononuclear inflammatory cells were present in the myocardium of all macaques that received CART, but not untreated SIV-positive animals or SIV-negative controls. Macrophages were the predominant inflammatory cells within lesions, as shown by immunoreactivity for the macrophage markers Iba1 and CD68. Heart specimens from monkeys that received CART had significantly lower virus burdens than untreated animals (p<0.05), but significantly greater quantities of TNF-α mRNA than either SIV-positive untreated animals or uninfected controls (p<0.05). Interferon-γ (IFN-γ), IL-1β and CXCL11 mRNA were upregulated in heart tissue from SIV-positive monkeys, independent of antiretroviral treatment, but CXCL9 mRNA was only upregulated in heart tissue from macaques that received CART.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results suggest that short-term treatment with multiple NRTIs may be associated with myocarditis, and demonstrate that the CD8-depleted SIV-positive rhesus monkey is a useful model for studying the cardiotoxic effects of combined antiretroviral therapy in the setting of immunodeficiency virus infection.
authors.affiliation: Division of Comparative Pathology, New England Primate Research Center, Harvard Medical School, Southborough, Massachusetts, United States of America.
authors.forename: Lakshmanan
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Annamalai
authors.forename: Susan V
authors.initials: SV
authors.lastname: Westmoreland
authors.forename: Heber G
authors.initials: HG
authors.lastname: Domingues
authors.forename: Dennis G
authors.initials: DG
authors.lastname: Walsh
authors.forename: R Gilberto
authors.initials: RG
authors.lastname: Gonzalez
authors.forename: Shawn P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: O'Neil
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D023241:Antiretroviral Therapy, Highly Active; D001483:Base Sequence; D016827:CD8 Antigens / Q000096:biosynthesis*; D008214:Lymphocytes / Q000821:virology; D008253:Macaca mulatta; D008264:Macrophages / Q000821:virology; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D009205:Myocarditis / Q000821:virology*; D009206:Myocardium / Q000378:metabolism; D009705:Nucleosides / Q000737:chemistry; D009711:Nucleotides / Q000737:chemistry; D018894:Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology*; D016097:Simian Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome / Q000188:drug therapy*; D015302:Simian Immunodeficiency Virus / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D016827:CD8 Antigens; D009705:Nucleosides; D009711:Nucleotides; D018894:Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors