title: Regulated and unregulated forms of cortisol reactivity: a dual vulnerability model.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To test in a laboratory setting the hypothesis that the most problematic daily outcomes should be particular to individuals displaying higher cortisol reactivity and deficits in executive functioning as assessed in a task-switching paradigm.
  
  
  METHODS
  Thirty-eight volunteers completed a comprehensive assessment protocol. Individual differences in cortisol reactivity were quantified in an initial laboratory session involving a social stress speech task. Subsequently, individual differences in task-switching costs in a cognitive paradigm were assessed in a second session. Participants then reported on four problematic outcomes-error reactivity; worry; core aspects of negative emotionality; and aggression behavior frequency-for 15 consecutive days.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Levels of cortisol reactivity did not predict task-switching costs. Instead, and as hypothesized, individual differences in cortisol reactivity and task-switching costs interacted to predict the problematic daily outcomes. The highest levels of such problematic outcomes were particular to high cortisol reactors also exhibiting greater task-switching costs.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The findings support the dual vulnerability model proposed and are discussed from temperamental, health risk, and daily outcome perspectives. These findings indicate that cortisol is a risk factor, particularly when combined with deficiencies in task-switching.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, North Dakota State University, Dept. 2765, PO Box 6050, Fargo, ND 58108-6050, USA. Michael.D.Robinson@ndsu.edu
authors.forename: Michael D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Robinson
authors.forename: Scott
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Ode
authors.forename: Clayton J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Hilmert
mesh_terms: D000203:Activities of Daily Living / Q000523:psychology; D000374:Aggression / Q000502:physiology; D002940:Circadian Rhythm / Q000502:physiology; D056344:Executive Function / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D005625:Frontal Lobe / Q000502:physiology; D006179:Gyrus Cinguli / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000032:analysis / Q000502:physiology*; D007206:Individuality; D008297:Male; D011340:Problem Solving; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology; D011930:Reaction Time / Q000502:physiology; D012463:Saliva / Q000737:chemistry; D013060:Speech / Q000502:physiology*; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000523:psychology; D013647:Task Performance and Analysis; D013694:Temperament / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: D006854:Hydrocortisone