title: High-resolution, noninvasive, two-photon fluorescence measurement of molecular concentrations in corneal tissue.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To perform high-resolution, noninvasive, calibrated measurements of the concentrations and diffusion profiles of fluorescent molecules in the live cornea after topical application to the ocular surface.
  
  
  METHODS
  An 800-nm femtosecond laser was used to perform two-photon fluorescence (TPF) axial scanning measurements. Calibration solutions consisting of sodium fluorescein (Na-Fl; concentration range, 0.01%-2.5%) and riboflavin (concentration range, 0.0125%-0.1%) were tested in well slides, and TPF signals were assessed. Excised feline eyeballs preserved in corneal storage medium and with either intact or removed corneal epithelia were then treated with Na-Fl, riboflavin, or fluorescein dextran (Fl-d) of different molecular weight (MW) for 30 minutes. Calibrated TPF was then used immediately to measure the concentration of these molecules across the central corneal depth.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The axial resolution of our TPF system was 6 μm, and a linear relationship was observed between TPF signal and low concentrations of most fluorophores. Intact corneas treated with Na-Fl or riboflavin exhibited a detectable penetration depth of only approximately 20 μm, compared with approximately 400 to 600 μm when the epithelium was removed before fluorophore application. Peak concentrations for intact corneas were half those attained with epithelial removal. Debrided corneas treated with 2,000,000 MW Fl-d showed a half-maximum penetration depth of 156.7 μm compared with 384 μm for the 3,000 MW dextran. The peak concentration of the high MW dextran was one quarter that of the lower MW dextran.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  TPF is an effective, high-resolution, noninvasive method of quantifying the diffusion and concentration of fluorescent molecules across the cornea.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Optics, University of Roichester, Rochester, NY, USA.
authors.forename: Liping
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Cui
authors.forename: Krystel R
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: Huxlin
authors.forename: Lisen
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Xu
authors.forename: Scott
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: MacRae
authors.forename: Wayne H
authors.initials: WH
authors.lastname: Knox
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002415:Cats; D003315:Cornea / Q000378:metabolism*; D003319:Corneal Stroma / Q000378:metabolism; D003911:Dextrans / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D019573:Epithelium, Corneal / Q000378:metabolism; D015353:Eye Enucleation; D019793:Fluorescein / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D016650:Fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate / Q000031:analogs & derivatives* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D036641:Microscopy, Fluorescence, Multiphoton; D012256:Riboflavin / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D014018:Tissue Distribution; D041623:Tomography, Optical Coherence
chemical_list: D003911:Dextrans; C015219:fluorescein isothiocyanate dextran; D016650:Fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate; D012256:Riboflavin; D019793:Fluorescein