title: Confirmed infection with intestinal schistosomiasis in semi-captive wild-born chimpanzees on Ngamba Island, Uganda.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Intestinal schistosomiasis, caused by Schistosoma mansoni, is endemic to Lake Victoria, with high prevalence of the disease observed in human lakeshore communities. However, nonhuman primates have recently been overlooked as potential hosts of the disease, despite known susceptibility.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using a variety of stool, urine, and serological diagnostic methods, 39 semi-captive wild-born chimpanzees and 37 staff members at Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Lake Victoria, Uganda, were examined for S. mansoni infection. Miracidia recovered from stool were DNA barcoded to investigate cross-over between humans and chimpanzees. The island was also surveyed for Biomphalaria intermediate host snails, which were examined for infection with S. mansoni.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Chimpanzees were unequivocally shown to be infected with intestinal schistosomiasis with a seroprevalence in excess of 90%. Three egg-positive cases were detected, although the sensitivity of the diagnostic tests varied due to earlier prophylactic praziquantel treatment. Miracidia hatched from chimpanzee stool revealed three DNA haplotypes commonly found in humans living throughout Lake Victoria, including staff on Ngamba Island, as well as two novel haplotypes. At one site, a snail was observed shedding schistosome cercariae.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The anthropozoonotic potential of intestinal schistosomiasis on Ngamba Island is greater than previously thought. Moreover, the ability of chimpanzees to void schistosome eggs capable of hatching into viable miracidia further suggests that these nonhuman primates may be capable of maintaining a local zoonotic transmission of schistosomiasis independently of humans. The implications for management of captive and wild primate populations at risk of exposure are discussed.
authors.affiliation: Wolfson Wellcome Biomedical Laboratories, Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom. c.standley@nhm.ac.uk
authors.forename: Claire J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Standley
authors.forename: Lawrence
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Mugisha
authors.forename: Jaco J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Verweij
authors.forename: Moses
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Adriko
authors.forename: Moses
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Arinaitwe
authors.forename: Candia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Rowell
authors.forename: Aaron
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Atuhaire
authors.forename: Martha
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Betson
authors.forename: Emma
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Hobbs
authors.forename: Christoffer R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: van Tulleken
authors.forename: Richard A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Kane
authors.forename: Lisette
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: van Lieshout
authors.forename: Lilly
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Ajarova
authors.forename: Narcis B
authors.initials: NB
authors.lastname: Kabatereine
authors.forename: J Russell
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Stothard
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D018420:Ape Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology*; D005243:Feces / Q000469:parasitology; D005838:Genotype; D005843:Geography; D006801:Humans; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D002679:Pan troglodytes / Q000469:parasitology*; D015995:Prevalence; D012550:Schistosoma mansoni / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology*; D012555:Schistosomiasis mansoni / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology / Q000662:veterinary*; D012908:Snails / Q000469:parasitology; D014454:Uganda / Q000453:epidemiology