title: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences: the role of early temperament and parenting in the development of externalizing problems.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  A difficult or undercontrolled temperament, as well as harsh parental discipline or a lack of warmth, has long been regarded as risk factors for the development of externalizing problems. In addition, it has been suggested that children with difficult temperament are especially susceptible to rearing influences. We investigated the impact of early temperament and parenting and their interactions on externalizing behavior at school age.
  
  
  METHODS
  Participants were 148 boys and 160 girls from a prospective longitudinal study on a high-risk sample. At ages 3 months and 2 years, temperament was assessed by a highly structured parent interview and standardized behavioral observations. Maternal parenting was assessed by videotaped behavioral observation and a parent questionnaire. Externalizing problems at age 8 years were measured by the Child Behavior Checklist.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Using hierarchical linear regression analyses, we found that externalizing problems were predicted by psychosocial adversity and poor self-control, whereas no main effect for restrictive parenting or maternal empathy was found. Fearful-inhibited boys were positively affected by empathic and sensitive parenting, whereas girls who were low in self-control and/or fearful developed less externalizing problems with restrictive parenting.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results partly support the differential susceptibility hypothesis. In addition, they point toward gender-specific pathways in the development of externalizing problems.
authors.affiliation: Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, PO Box 12 21 20, 68072 Mannheim, Germany. martina.pitzer@klinikum-karlsruhe.de
authors.forename: Martina
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Pitzer
authors.forename: Christine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Jennen-Steinmetz
authors.forename: Guenter
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Esser
authors.forename: Martin H
authors.initials: MH
authors.lastname: Schmidt
authors.forename: Manfred
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Laucht
mesh_terms: D000367:Age Factors; D002648:Child; D002652:Child Behavior / Q000523:psychology; D002653:Child Behavior Disorders / Q000209:etiology* / Q000523:psychology; D002675:Child, Preschool; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007406:Interview, Psychological; D008297:Male; D016487:Parenting / Q000523:psychology*; D025341:Principal Component Analysis; D011446:Prospective Studies; D011584:Psychology; D012044:Regression Analysis; D012307:Risk Factors; D012737:Sex Factors; D013694:Temperament