Development of inhibitory control among prenatally cocaine exposed and non-cocaine exposed youths from late childhood to early adolescence: The effects of gender and risk and subsequent aggressive behavior.
The goal of the present investigation was to characterize the development of inhibitory control, an aspect of executive functions, in a sample of prenatally cocaine exposed (CE; n=165) children compared to an at risk, but prenatally cocaine unexposed (NCE; n=119) sample across time (i.e. 7.5 to 11.5 years of age). Gender and cumulative risk, a combination of postnatal medical (i.e. low birth weight and APGAR scores) and demographic risk, indexed by maternal educational attainment, were examined as predictors of change in inhibitory control across time and aggression was modeled as an outcome when children reached 14 years of age. Multiple group latent growth models indicated that CE children made more errors at 7.5 years of age during a standard Stroop interference task, however, over time CE children had greater age-related improvements, narrowing the initial gap, with NCE children in the ability to inhibit errors. Gender effects at 7.5 years within the NCE group were identified with NCE boys making initially more errors than NCE girls; both NCE and CE girls improved faster across development compared to NCE and CE boys, respectively. Greater cumulative risk was associated with more errors at 7.5 years in the CE and NCE groups. No differences were observed between CE and NCE children on time to complete the Stroop task at 7.5 years. However, NCE children had greater age-related improvements in their time to complete the Stroop interference task relative to their CE counterparts. NCE girls improved the fastest over time relative to NCE boys; a similar trend emerged (p<0.10) with CE girls improving faster over time than CE boys. Although all participants improved across development, higher cumulative risk in both groups was associated with slower age-related improvements (i.e. higher slopes) in the time to complete the Stroop task across development. After accounting for gender and cumulative risk, findings in both groups indicated that those who made more errors at 7.5 years of age and/or who had slower age-related changes (i.e. higher slopes) of time to complete the Stroop task across development were more aggressive as rated by caregivers at 14 years of age. Although qualified by gender and cumulative risk, these findings are consistent with reduced cognitive processing efficiency and executive function difficulties in CE children relative to NCE children. Findings suggest that executive function difficulties in CE children may be subtle as development continues to unfold over time. Furthermore, these findings indicate that development of inhibitory control may be an important mechanism linking prenatal cocaine exposure, gender, and cumulative risk to later adverse outcomes.
Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115, USA. dbridgett1@niu.edu
David J
DJ
Bridgett
Linda C
LC
Mayes
D000293:Adolescent; D000294:Adolescent Behavior / Q000187:drug effects*; D000374:Aggression / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000523:psychology; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D002648:Child; D002652:Child Behavior / Q000187:drug effects*; D003042:Cocaine / Q000633:toxicity*; D003627:Data Interpretation, Statistical; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000523:psychology*; D012306:Risk; D012737:Sex Factors; D012923:Social Class; D014505:Urban Population
D003042:Cocaine
Psychophysiology. 2003 Sep;40(5):752-61
14696728
Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1998 Jan-Feb;20(1):43-53
9511168
Neuropsychology. 2009 May;23(3):381-391
19413451
Neuron. 2002 Jan 17;33(2):301-11
11804576
J Psychol. 2008 Jul;142(4):373-85
18792649
J Abnorm Psychol. 2003 Nov;112(4):526-44
14674867
Subst Use Misuse. 2004 Jan;39(1):25-59
15002943
Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2004 Sep;19(6):725-43
15288327
Dev Psychol. 2008 Jul;44(4):919-28
18605824
Neuropsychol Rev. 2006 Mar;16(1):17-42
16794878
J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2008 Apr;36(3):323-33
17924184
Child Dev. 1985 Aug;56(4):868-83
4042750
J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2003 Oct;24(5):345-51
14578695
Int J Neurosci. 2004 Oct;114(10):1291-311
15370187
J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2007 Oct;48(10):1033-41
17915004
J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2006 Apr;27(2):83-92
16682870
J Anal Toxicol. 1987 Sep-Oct;11(5):228-30
3682784
Pediatrics. 2007 Feb;119(2):e348-59
17272597
J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2007 Jun;35(3):335-45
17226093
J Fam Psychol. 2007 Jun;21(2):206-17
17605543
Dev Rev. 2009 Sep 1;29(3):180-200
20161467
J Adolesc. 2007 Dec;30(6):1035-49
17467051
J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2003 Oct;24(5):323-35
14578693
Neuropsychologia. 1993 Sep;31(9):907-22
8232848
Neuropsychologia. 2003;41(8):1122-35
12667546
Brain Cogn. 2004 Jul;55(2):409-12
15177825
Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2005 Mar-Apr;27(2):181-9
15734269
Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2008 Mar-Apr;30(2):96-106
18243651
J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2007 Dec;28(6):467-72
18091092
Dev Psychol. 2007 Jan;43(1):208-21
17201520
J Pediatr Psychol. 2002 Apr-May;27(3):259-69
11909933
Cereb Cortex. 2008 Nov;18(11):2505-22
18281300
Dev Psychol. 2006 Jul;42(4):688-97
16802901
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30(6):718-29
16887188
Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2000 Jan;24(1):13-9
10654655
Dev Psychol. 1999 Jan;35(1):205-13
9923475
J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2004 Aug;25(4):254-63
15308926
Dev Psychol. 2000 Mar;36(2):220-32
10749079
J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2005 Feb;26(1):42-7
15718883
Soc Dev. 2009 Feb 18;19(2):326-347
20376201
J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1997 May;3(3):237-45
9161102
Psychol Bull. 1997 Jan;121(1):65-94
9000892
Biol Psychol. 2000 Oct;54(1-3):241-57
11035225
Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2002 May-Jun;24(3):321-7
12009487
Hum Brain Mapp. 2007 Nov;28(11):1163-77
17538951
Dev Psychol. 2009 May;45(3):724-39
19413428
Dev Neuropsychol. 2009;34(4):393-421
20183707
Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2005 Nov-Dec;27(6):797-813
16111858
Child Neuropsychol. 2007 May;13(3):205-18
17453830
Neuropsychologia. 2006;44(12):2337-47
16806311
Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2009 Nov-Dec;31(6):325-33
19695324
Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2002 May-Jun;24(3):385-95
12009493