title: Common pathogenic mechanisms and pathways in the development of COPD and lung cancer.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Lung cancer and COPD commonly coexist in smokers, and the presence of COPD increases the risk of developing lung cancer. In addition to smoking cessation and preventing smoking initiation, understanding the shared mechanisms of these smoking-related lung diseases is critical, in order to develop new methods of prevention, diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer and COPD.
  
  
  METHODS
  This review discusses the common mechanisms for susceptibility to lung cancer and COPD, which in addition to cigarette smoke, may involve inflammation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, abnormal repair, oxidative stress, and cell proliferation. Furthermore, we discuss the underlying genomic and epigenomic changes (single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), copy number variation, promoter hypermethylation and microRNAs) that are likely to alter biological pathways, leading to susceptibility to lung cancer and COPD (e.g., altered nicotine receptor biology).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Strategies to study genomics, epigenomics and gene-environment interaction will yield greater insight into the shared pathogenesis of lung cancer and COPD, leading to new diagnostic and therapeutic modalities.
authors.affiliation: The Prince Charles Hospital, Department of Thoracic Medicine, Thoracic Research Laboratory, Brisbane, Australia. YangI@health.qld.gov.au
authors.forename: Ian A
authors.initials: IA
authors.lastname: Yang
authors.forename: Vandana
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Relan
authors.forename: Casey M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Wright
authors.forename: Morgan R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Davidson
authors.forename: Krishna B
authors.initials: KB
authors.lastname: Sriram
authors.forename: Santiyagu M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Savarimuthu Francis
authors.forename: Belinda E
authors.initials: BE
authors.lastname: Clarke
authors.forename: Edwina E
authors.initials: EE
authors.lastname: Duhig
authors.forename: Rayleen V
authors.initials: RV
authors.lastname: Bowman
authors.forename: Kwun M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Fong
mesh_terms: D000230:Adenocarcinoma / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics / Q000473:pathology; D000077192:Adenocarcinoma of Lung; D044127:Epigenesis, Genetic; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008175:Lung Neoplasms / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics / Q000473:pathology; D008297:Male; D058990:Molecular Targeted Therapy; D020641:Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide; D029424:Pulmonary Disease, Chronic Obstructive / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics / Q000473:pathology; D012907:Smoking; D016540:Smoking Cessation