title: Digital stereophotogrammetry based on circular markers and zooming cameras: evaluation of a method for 3D analysis of small motions in orthopaedic research.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Orthopaedic research projects focusing on small displacements in a small measurement volume require a radiation free, three dimensional motion analysis system. A stereophotogrammetrical motion analysis system can track wireless, small, light-weight markers attached to the objects. Thereby the disturbance of the measured objects through the marker tracking can be kept at minimum. The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate a non-position fixed compact motion analysis system configured for a small measurement volume and able to zoom while tracking small round flat markers in respect to a fiducial marker which was used for the camera pose estimation.
  
  
  METHODS
  The system consisted of two web cameras and the fiducial marker placed in front of them. The markers to track were black circles on a white background. The algorithm to detect a centre of the projected circle on the image plane was described and applied. In order to evaluate the accuracy (mean measurement error) and precision (standard deviation of the measurement error) of the optical measurement system, two experiments were performed: 1) inter-marker distance measurement and 2) marker displacement measurement.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The first experiment of the 10 mm distances measurement showed a total accuracy of 0.0086 mm and precision of ± 0.1002 mm. In the second experiment, translations from 0.5 mm to 5 mm were measured with total accuracy of 0.0038 mm and precision of ± 0.0461 mm. The rotations of 2.25° amount were measured with the entire accuracy of 0.058° and the precision was of ± 0.172°.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The description of the non-proprietary measurement device with very good levels of accuracy and precision may provide opportunities for new, cost effective applications of stereophotogrammetrical analysis in musculoskeletal research projects, focusing on kinematics of small displacements in a small measurement volume.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory for Biomechanics and Biomaterials, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Hannover Medical School, Germany. evgenij.bobrowitsch@yahoo.de
authors.forename: Evgenij
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Bobrowitsch
authors.forename: Christof
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Hurschler
authors.forename: Gavin
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Olender
authors.forename: Christian
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Plaass
authors.forename: Hazibullah
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Waizy
authors.forename: Heino
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Arnold
authors.forename: Christina
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Stukenborg-Colsman
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000465:Algorithms; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D005260:Female; D057918:Fiducial Markers; D006801:Humans; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000295:instrumentation* / Q000379:methods*; D009038:Motion; D009985:Orthopedics / Q000379:methods*; D010780:Photogrammetry / Q000379:methods*