title: MicroRNA in prostate, bladder, and kidney cancer: a systematic review.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  MicroRNAs (miRNA) are noncoding RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression. Their altered expression and function have been observed in most urologic cancers. MiRNAs represent potential disease biomarkers and novel therapeutic targets.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To review and evaluate the evidence implicating miRNAs in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer (PCa), bladder cancer (BCa), and renal cancer.
  
  
  METHODS
  A systematic review was performed using PubMed and Embase to search for reports using strings for microRNA, non-coding RNA, cancer, prostate, bladder, and renal cancer. Identified manuscripts were retrieved and references searched. Selected studies were required to concentrate on the role of miRNA in these urologic cancers.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We reviewed articles that focus on this topic. More than 40 miRNAs have been implicated in urologic cancer and many target common carcinogenic pathways. In particular, apoptosis avoidance, cell proliferation, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, angiogenic signalling, and the generation of androgen independence are targeted or facilitated by more than one miRNA. Little work has been done to evaluate the translational applications for this knowledge to date. Novel therapeutic strategies have been developed and are under investigation to selectively modulate miRNAs; such work would potentially enable personalised tumour therapy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  MiRNAs appear to be important modulators of urologic cancer. Their expression is frequently altered in these tumours, and many are functionally implicated in their pathogenesis. They require evaluation to determine the translational role and therapeutic potential for this knowledge.
authors.affiliation: Institute for Cancer Studies and Academic Urology Unit, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK. j.catto@sheffield.ac.uk
authors.forename: James W F
authors.initials: JW
authors.lastname: Catto
authors.forename: Antonio
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Alcaraz
authors.forename: Anders S
authors.initials: AS
authors.lastname: Bjartell
authors.forename: Ralph
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: De Vere White
authors.forename: Christopher P
authors.initials: CP
authors.lastname: Evans
authors.forename: Susanne
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Fussel
authors.forename: Freddie C
authors.initials: FC
authors.lastname: Hamdy
authors.forename: Olli
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Kallioniemi
authors.forename: Lourdes
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Mengual
authors.forename: Thorsten
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Schlomm
authors.forename: Tapio
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Visakorpi
mesh_terms: D014408:Biomarkers, Tumor / Q000235:genetics*; D005260:Female; D015972:Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic; D015316:Genetic Therapy; D006801:Humans; D007680:Kidney Neoplasms / Q000235:genetics* / Q000473:pathology / Q000628:therapy; D008297:Male; D035683:MicroRNAs / Q000032:analysis*; D011379:Prognosis; D011471:Prostatic Neoplasms / Q000235:genetics* / Q000473:pathology / Q000628:therapy; D001749:Urinary Bladder Neoplasms / Q000235:genetics* / Q000473:pathology / Q000628:therapy
chemical_list: D014408:Biomarkers, Tumor; D035683:MicroRNAs