title: The influence of distance and level of care on delivery place in rural Zambia: a study of linked national data in a geographic information system.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Maternal and perinatal mortality could be reduced if all women delivered in settings where skilled attendants could provide emergency obstetric care (EmOC) if complications arise. Research on determinants of skilled attendance at delivery has focussed on household and individual factors, neglecting the influence of the health service environment, in part due to a lack of suitable data. The aim of this study was to quantify the effects of distance to care and level of care on women's use of health facilities for delivery in rural Zambia, and to compare their population impact to that of other important determinants.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Using a geographic information system (GIS), we linked national household data from the Zambian Demographic and Health Survey 2007 with national facility data from the Zambian Health Facility Census 2005 and calculated straight-line distances. Health facilities were classified by whether they provided comprehensive EmOC (CEmOC), basic EmOC (BEmOC), or limited or substandard services. Multivariable multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed to investigate the influence of distance to care and level of care on place of delivery (facility or home) for 3,682 rural births, controlling for a wide range of confounders. Only a third of rural Zambian births occurred at a health facility, and half of all births were to mothers living more than 25 km from a facility of BEmOC standard or better. As distance to the closest health facility doubled, the odds of facility delivery decreased by 29% (95% CI, 14%-40%). Independently, each step increase in level of care led to 26% higher odds of facility delivery (95% CI, 7%-48%). The population impact of poor geographic access to EmOC was at least of similar magnitude as that of low maternal education, household poverty, or lack of female autonomy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Lack of geographic access to emergency obstetric care is a key factor explaining why most rural deliveries in Zambia still occur at home without skilled care. Addressing geographic and quality barriers is crucial to increase service use and to lower maternal and perinatal mortality. Linking datasets using GIS has great potential for future research and can help overcome the neglect of health system factors in research and policy. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Public Health, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität, Heidelberg, Germany. sabine.gabrysch@uni-heidelberg.de
authors.forename: Sabine
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Gabrysch
authors.forename: Simon
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Cousens
authors.forename: Jonathan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Cox
authors.forename: Oona M R
authors.initials: OM
authors.lastname: Campbell
mesh_terms: D016550:Birthing Centers / Q000191:economics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data* / Q000600:supply & distribution; D015986:Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic; D036861:Delivery, Obstetric / Q000191:economics; D004630:Emergencies; D005260:Female; D040362:Geographic Information Systems; D006297:Health Services Accessibility; D006700:Home Childbirth / Q000191:economics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D006801:Humans; D008427:Maternal Health Services / Q000191:economics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data* / Q000600:supply & distribution; D008428:Maternal Mortality; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D007744:Obstetric Labor Complications / Q000453:epidemiology; D011247:Pregnancy; D012423:Rural Health / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D014187:Transportation of Patients; D015024:Zambia