title: Potential hazards of viewing 3-D stereoscopic television, cinema and computer games: a review.
abstract: The visual stimulus provided by a 3-D stereoscopic display differs from that of the real world because the image provided to each eye is produced on a flat surface. The distance from the screen to the eye remains fixed, providing a single focal distance, but the introduction of disparity between the images allows objects to be located geometrically in front of, or behind, the screen. Unlike in the real world, the stimulus to accommodation and the stimulus to convergence do not match. Although this mismatch is used positively in some forms of Orthoptic treatment, a number of authors have suggested that it could negatively lead to the development of asthenopic symptoms. From knowledge of the zone of clear, comfortable, single binocular vision one can predict that, for people with normal binocular vision, adverse symptoms will not be present if the discrepancy is small, but are likely if it is large, and that what constitutes 'large' and 'small' are idiosyncratic to the individual. The accommodation-convergence mismatch is not, however, the only difference between the natural and the artificial stimuli. In the former case, an object located in front of, or behind, a fixated object will not only be perceived as double if the images fall outside Panum's fusional areas, but it will also be defocused and blurred. In the latter case, however, it is usual for the producers of cinema, TV or computer game content to provide an image that is in focus over the whole of the display, and as a consequence diplopic images will be sharply in focus. The size of Panum's fusional area is spatial frequency-dependent, and because of this the high spatial frequencies present in the diplopic 3-D image will provide a different stimulus to the fusion system from that found naturally.
authors.affiliation: Loughborough Design School, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK. p.a.howarth@lboro.ac.uk
authors.forename: Peter A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Howarth
mesh_terms: D000065:Accommodation, Ocular / Q000502:physiology*; D001248:Asthenopia / Q000209:etiology*; D003201:Computers; D004215:Distance Perception / Q000502:physiology*; D019317:Evidence-Based Medicine; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional; D008297:Male; D009040:Motion Pictures; D013690:Television; D014796:Visual Perception