title: Registration of CT to 3D ultrasound using near-field fiducial localization: A feasibility study.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Registration of ultrasound to computed tomography (CT) images is used in several image-guided procedures, including laparoscopic surgery and radiation therapy. Conventional approaches use an external tracker calibrated to the ultrasound transducer and CT system, but several calibration steps are required. Registration can also be performed by aligning image features between modalities, but differences in feature depiction make matching difficult and initial approximate alignment is often needed. Registration using fiducials is a simpler approach but is limited by the need to implant fiducials in the anatomical region of interest so they are visible to both ultrasound and CT. This paper investigates the feasibility of using fiducials near the skin surface, and whether such fiducials can be sufficiently localized in the very near field of a 3D ultrasound transducer without significantly degrading image quality. This approach can also be used as an initialization step for feature-based registration techniques.
  
  
  METHODS
  A stand-off pad containing fiducials (n > 3) was constructed using polyvinyl chloride and steel ball fiducials that are visible in both 3D ultrasound and CT images. Experiments on phantoms were performed to assess image quality and registration errors. Controlled variables included pad thickness and ultrasound imaging parameters. Initial tests were also conducted of a potential application in partial nephrectomy surgery.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Image quality was degraded by an average of 6-11-13% (elevational-axial-lateral) in resolution of point targets and 5% in lesion contrast. Average fiducial localization error was 1.34 mm (axial) to 2.38 mm (lateral and elevational); average fiducial registration error (FRE) was 0.46 mm (axial), 1.08 mm (lateral) and 0.90 mm (elevational); and average total registration error (TRE) was 1.84 mm (axial), 0.89 mm (lateral) and 3.31 mm (elevational). Clinical results showed a similar FRE to that in the phantom study, but with an average TRE of 14.04 mm (over three patients). Ultimate alignment of the organ boundaries was affected mainly by motion from respiration.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The small loss of image quality from the fiducial stand-off pad and the minimal inconvenience of using the pad at the time of the CT scan may be a worthwhile trade-off for purposes of registration since the pad provides a registration accuracy of several millimeters while still allowing subsequent feature-based registration. Future research will focus on using the registration from the fiducial stand-off pad for deformable feature-based registration of 3D ultrasound to CT for tumor localization in renal surgery.
authors.affiliation: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. raoulk@ece.ubc.ca
authors.forename: Raoul
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Kingma
authors.forename: Robert N
authors.initials: RN
authors.lastname: Rohling
authors.forename: Chris
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Nguan
mesh_terms: D005240:Feasibility Studies; D057918:Fiducial Markers; D006801:Humans; D007089:Image Enhancement; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000379:methods*; D007680:Kidney Neoplasms / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000601:surgery; D019060:Minimally Invasive Surgical Procedures; D009392:Nephrectomy / Q000379:methods*; D019047:Phantoms, Imaging; D025321:Surgery, Computer-Assisted; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed / Q000379:methods*; D014463:Ultrasonography / Q000379:methods*