title: Racism and hypertension: a review of the empirical evidence and implications for clinical practice.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Despite improved hypertension (HTN) awareness and treatment, racial disparities in HTN prevalence persist. An understanding of the biopsychosocial determinants of HTN is necessary to address racial disparities in the prevalence of HTN. This review examines the evidence directly and indirectly linking multiple levels of racism to HTN.
  
  
  METHODS
  Published empirical research in EBSCO databases investigating the relationships of three levels of racism (individual/interpersonal, internalized, and institutional racism) to HTN was reviewed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Direct evidence linking individual/interpersonal racism to HTN diagnosis is weak. However, the relationship of individual/interpersonal racism to ambulatory blood pressure (ABP) is more consistent, with all published studies reporting a positive relationship of interpersonal racism to ABP. There is no direct evidence linking internalized racism to BP. Population-based studies provide some evidence linking institutional racism, in the forms of residential racial segregation (RRS) and incarceration, to HTN incidence. Racism shows associations to stress exposure and reactivity as well as associations to established HTN-related risk factors including obesity, low levels of physical activity and alcohol use. The effects vary by level of racism.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Overall the findings suggest that racism may increase risk for HTN; these effects emerge more clearly for institutional racism than for individual level racism. All levels of racism may influence the prevalence of HTN via stress exposure and reactivity and by fostering conditions that undermine health behaviors, raising the barriers to lifestyle change.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, St Johns University, Jamaica, New York, USA. brondole@stjohns.edu
authors.forename: Elizabeth
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Brondolo
authors.forename: Erica E
authors.initials: EE
authors.lastname: Love
authors.forename: Melissa
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Pencille
authors.forename: Antoinette
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Schoenthaler
authors.forename: Gbenga
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Ogedegbe
mesh_terms: D001741:Black or African American; D054625:Healthcare Disparities; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000208:ethnology* / Q000209:etiology; D011287:Prejudice; D012923:Social Class