title: Endozoochory by beetles: a novel seed dispersal mechanism.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Due in part to biophysical sized-related constraints, insects unlike vertebrates are seldom expected to act as primary seed dispersers via ingestion of fruits and seeds (endozoochory). The Mediterranean parasitic plant Cytinus hypocistis, however, possesses some characteristics that may facilitate endozoochory by beetles. By combining a long-term field study with experimental manipulation, we tested whether C. hypocistis seeds are endozoochorously dispersed by beetles.
  
  
  METHODS
  Field studies were carried out over 4 years on six populations in southern Spain. We recorded the rate of natural fruit consumption by beetles, the extent of beetle movement, beetle behaviour and the relative importance of C. hypocistis fruits in beetle diet.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The tenebrionid beetle Pimelia costata was an important disperser of C. hypocistis seeds, consuming up to 17·5 % of fruits per population. Forty-six per cent of beetles captured in the field consumed C. hypocistis fruits, with up to 31 seeds found in individual beetle frass. An assessment of seeds following passage through the gut of beetles indicated that seeds remained intact and viable and that the proportion of viable seeds from beetle frass was not significantly different from that of seeds collected directly from fruits.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A novel plant-animal interaction is revealed; endozoochory by beetles may facilitate the dispersal of viable seeds after passage through the gut away from the parent plant to potentially favourable underground sites offering a high probability of germination and establishment success. Such an ecological role has until now been attributed only to vertebrates. Future studies should consider more widely the putative role of fruit and seed ingestion by invertebrates as a dispersal mechanism, particularly for those plant species that possess small seeds.
authors.affiliation: Estación Biológica de Doñana, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Avenida de Américo Vespucio s/n, Seville, Spain. cvega@ebd.csic.es
authors.forename: Clara
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: de Vega
authors.forename: Montserrat
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Arista
authors.forename: Pedro L
authors.initials: PL
authors.lastname: Ortiz
authors.forename: Carlos M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Herrera
authors.forename: Salvador
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Talavera
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001517:Coleoptera / Q000502:physiology*; D005247:Feeding Behavior / Q000502:physiology; D005638:Fruit / Q000502:physiology; D018525:Germination; D019660:Malvaceae / Q000196:embryology; D058614:Seed Dispersal / Q000502:physiology*; D013997:Time Factors