title: Reconstruction of brachytherapy seed positions and orientations from cone-beam CT x-ray projections via a novel iterative forward projection matching method.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To generalize and experimentally validate a novel algorithm for reconstructing the 3D pose (position and orientation) of implanted brachytherapy seeds from a set of a few measured 2D cone-beam CT (CBCT) x-ray projections.
  
  
  METHODS
  The iterative forward projection matching (IFPM) algorithm was generalized to reconstruct the 3D pose, as well as the centroid, of brachytherapy seeds from three to ten measured 2D projections. The gIFPM algorithm finds the set of seed poses that minimizes the sum-of-squared-difference of the pixel-by-pixel intensities between computed and measured autosegmented radiographic projections of the implant. Numerical simulations of clinically realistic brachytherapy seed configurations were performed to demonstrate the proof of principle. An in-house machined brachytherapy phantom, which supports precise specification of seed position and orientation at known values for simulated implant geometries, was used to experimentally validate this algorithm. The phantom was scanned on an ACUITY CBCT digital simulator over a full 660 sinogram projections. Three to ten x-ray images were selected from the full set of CBCT sinogram projections and postprocessed to create binary seed-only images.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In the numerical simulations, seed reconstruction position and orientation errors were approximately 0.6 mm and 5 degrees, respectively. The physical phantom measurements demonstrated an absolute positional accuracy of (0.78 +/- 0.57) mm or less. The theta and phi angle errors were found to be (5.7 +/- 4.9) degrees and (6.0 +/- 4.1) degrees, respectively, or less when using three projections; with six projections, results were slightly better. The mean registration error was better than 1 mm/6 degrees compared to the measured seed projections. Each test trial converged in 10-20 iterations with computation time of 12-18 min/iteration on a 1 GHz processor.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This work describes a novel, accurate, and completely automatic method for reconstructing seed orientations, as well as centroids, from a small number of radiographic projections, in support of intraoperative planning and adaptive replanning. Unlike standard back-projection methods, gIFPM avoids the need to match corresponding seed images on the projections. This algorithm also successfully reconstructs overlapping clustered and highly migrated seeds in the implant. The accuracy of better than 1 mm and 6 degrees demonstrates that gIFPM has the potential to support 2D Task Group 43 calculations in clinical practice.
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiation Oncology, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA.
authors.forename: Damodar
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Pokhrel
authors.forename: Martin J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Murphy
authors.forename: Dorin A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Todor
authors.forename: Elisabeth
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Weiss
authors.forename: Jeffrey F
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Williamson
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D001918:Brachytherapy / Q000379:methods*; D054893:Cone-Beam Computed Tomography / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000379:methods*; D008297:Male; D019047:Phantoms, Imaging; D011471:Prostatic Neoplasms / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000532:radiotherapy; D019736:Prostheses and Implants; D015203:Reproducibility of Results