title: Mechanical properties of the human Achilles tendon, in vivo.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Ultrasonography has been widely applied for in vivo measurements of tendon mechanical properties. Assessments of human Achilles tendon mechanical properties have received great interest. Achilles tendon injuries predominantly occur in the tendon region between the Achilles-soleus myotendinous junction and Achilles-calcaneus osteotendinous junction i.e. in the free Achilles tendon. However, there has been no adequate ultrasound based method for quantifying the mechanical properties of the free human Achilles tendon. This study aimed to: 1) examine the mechanical properties of the free human Achilles tendon in vivo by the use of ultrasonography and 2) assess the between-day reproducibility of these measurements.
  
  
  METHODS
  Ten male subjects had the Achilles tendon moment arm length, Achilles tendon cross sectional area and free Achilles tendon length determined. All subjects performed isometric plantarflexion ramp contractions to assess between-day reproducibility on two separate days. Simultaneous ultrasonography based measurements of Achilles-soleus myotendinous junction and Achilles-calcaneus osteotendinous junction displacement together with Achilles tendon force estimates yielded free Achilles tendon mechanical properties.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Free Achilles tendon maximal force, deformation and stiffness were 1924 (SD 229) N, 2.2 (SD 0.6) mm and 2622 (SD 534) N/mm on day 1. For between-day reproducibility there were no significant differences between days for free Achilles tendon mechanical properties. The between-day correlation coefficient and typical error percent were 0.81 and 5.3% for maximal Achilles tendon force, 0.85 and 11.8% for maximal Achilles tendon deformation and 0.84 and 8.8% for Achilles tendon stiffness respectively. Last, osteotendinous junction proximal displacement on average contributed with 71 (SD 12) % of proximal myotendinous junction displacement.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study, for the first time, presents an ultrasonography based in vivo method for measurement of free AT mechanical properties. The method is applicable for evaluation of free human Achilles tendon mechanical properties in relation to training, injury and rehabilitation.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Sports Medicine, Dept. Othopedic Surgery M, Bispebjerg Hospital and Center for Healthy Aging, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. mads.kongsgaard@gmail.com
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kongsgaard
authors.forename: C H
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: Nielsen
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Hegnsvad
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Aagaard
authors.forename: S P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Magnusson
mesh_terms: D000125:Achilles Tendon / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000502:physiology*; D000328:Adult; D055119:Elastic Modulus / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D007537:Isometric Contraction / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000502:physiology*; D013718:Tensile Strength / Q000502:physiology; D014463:Ultrasonography