title: An overview of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid: pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, toxic effects, addiction, analytical methods, and interpretation of results.
abstract: Abuse of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) has been known since the early 1990's, but is not as widespread as the consumption of other illegal drugs. However, the number of severe intoxications with fatal outcomes is comparatively high; not the least of which is brought about by the consumption of the currently legal precursor substances gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD). In regards to previous assumptions, addiction to GHB or its analogues can occur with severe symptoms of withdrawal. Moreover, GHB can be used for drug-facilitated sexual assaults. Its pharmacological effects are generated mainly by interaction with both GABA(B) and GHB receptors, as well as its influence on other transmitter systems in the human brain. Numerous analytical methods for determining GHB using chromatographic techniques were published in recent years, and an enzymatic screening method was established. However, the short window of GHB detection in blood or urine due to its rapid metabolism is a challenge. Furthermore, despite several studies addressing this problem, evaluation of analytical results can be difficult: GHB is a metabolite of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid); a differentiation between endogenous and exogenous concentrations has to be made. Apart from this, in samples with a longer storage interval and especially in postmortem specimens, higher levels can be measured due to GHB generation during this postmortem interval or storage time.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Toxicology, University Medical Centre, Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany. h.andresen@uke.uni-hamburg.de
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Andresen
authors.forename: B E
authors.initials: BE
authors.lastname: Aydin
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mueller
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Iwersen-Bergmann
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D006801:Humans; D006885:Hydroxybutyrates / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics* / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000633:toxicity; D013287:Illicit Drugs / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics* / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000633:toxicity; D015813:Substance Abuse Detection / Q000379:methods*; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology
chemical_list: D006885:Hydroxybutyrates; D013287:Illicit Drugs; C111420:4-hydroxybutyric acid