title: An integrative review of infection prevention and control programs for multidrug-resistant organisms in acute care hospitals: a socio-ecological perspective.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The infection rates of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDRO) are increasing in Canada and the United States. The prevention and control of MDRO infections remain an important issue in acute care hospitals. Although comprehensive infection prevention and control programs have been recommended, there is little evidence to date of their effectiveness or of what aspects are most important.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Our objectives were to review and critique the literature on the relationship between an MDRO infection and control program and MDRO rates in acute care hospitals.
  
  
  METHODS
  Studies including original research published between January 1, 1998, and May 14, 2009, were identified through MEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE, PUBMED, The Cochrane Library, and expert consultation. A comprehensive search strategy was developed with a librarian to find studies that covered the main subject areas of this integrative review.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Of the 1,382 papers retrieved, 47 were reviewed, and 32 studies met the inclusion criteria. The interventions in the included studies were assessed using the tier 1/tier 2 framework. A total of 18 (56.25%) studies had an administrative measure as an intervention; 20 (62.5%) studies had education and training of health care personnel; 8 (25.0%) studies had judicious use of antimicrobial agents; 17 (53.1%) studies used surveillance; 24 (75.0%) studies had infection control precautions to prevent transmission; 7 studies (21.9%) introduced environmental measures; and 9 (28.1%) studies used patient decolonization. Although all the 32 studies were quasiexperimental studies, only 2 (5.9%) studies provided sample size calculations, and only 5 studies reported confounding factors. Whereas 27 used an interrupted time series design and 2 were controlled pre- and post-intervention designs, 3 were pre- and post-intervention without control groups.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This integrative review demonstrated that the evidence of the relationship between MDRO infection prevention and control programs and the rates of MDRO is weak. Although major methodologic weaknesses exist in the published literature making it not possible to exclude other plausible explanations for the reduction of the acquisition of MDRO, the overall evidence does support the use of multiple interventions to reduce the rates of MDRO in acute care hospitals. Whereas it is unclear which bundles of interventions are effective, there is a clear suggestion that multiple simultaneous interventions can be effective in reducing MDRO infections. In addition, despite the limitations of interrupted time series, multiple studies employing active surveillance cultures were associated with reduced MDRO infections. Future individual reports of outbreaks and intervention studies should be written in a standardized manner using the recommended Outbreak Reports and Intervention Studies of Nosocomial Infection (ORION) guidelines. Further research is needed on the proposed tier 1/tier 2 framework clearly indicating all the interventions implemented.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Nursing, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Electronic address: chantal.backman@ualberta.ca.
authors.forename: Chantal
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Backman
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
authors.forename: Geoffrey
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Taylor
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Nursing, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
authors.forename: Anne
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Sales
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Nursing, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
authors.forename: Patricia Beryl
authors.initials: PB
authors.lastname: Marck
mesh_terms: D001424:Bacterial Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology / Q000517:prevention & control*; D016360:Clostridioides difficile / Q000472:pathogenicity; D003428:Cross Infection / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology / Q000517:prevention & control*; D024901:Drug Resistance, Multiple, Bacterial; D006302:Health Services Research; D006801:Humans; D017053:Infection Control / Q000379:methods* / Q000458:organization & administration; D007362:Intensive Care Units; D055624:Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus / Q000472:pathogenicity; D017410:Practice Guidelines as Topic; D001618:beta-Lactamases / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D001618:beta-Lactamases