title: Socioeconomic status and exposure to disinfection by-products in drinking water in Spain.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Disinfection by-products in drinking water are chemical contaminants that have been associated with cancer and other adverse effects. Exposure occurs from consumption of tap water, inhalation and dermal absorption.
  
  
  METHODS
  We determined the relationship between socioeconomic status and exposure to disinfection by-products in 1271 controls from a multicentric bladder cancer case-control study in Spain. Information on lifetime drinking water sources, swimming pool attendance, showering-bathing practices, and socioeconomic status (education, income) was collected through personal interviews.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The most highly educated subjects consumed less tap water (57%) and more bottled water (33%) than illiterate subjects (69% and 17% respectively, p-value = 0.003). These differences became wider in recent time periods. The time spent bathing or showering was positively correlated with attained educational level (p < 0.001). Swimming pool attendance was more frequent among highly educated subjects compared to the illiterate (odds ratio = 3.4; 95% confidence interval 1.6-7.3).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The most highly educated subjects were less exposed to chlorination by-products through ingestion but more exposed through dermal contact and inhalation in pools and showers/baths. Health risk perceptions and economic capacity may affect patterns of water consumption that can result in differences in exposure to water contaminants.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain. gcastano@creal.cat
authors.forename: Gemma
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Castaño-Vinyals
authors.forename: Kenneth P
authors.initials: KP
authors.lastname: Cantor
authors.forename: Cristina M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Villanueva
authors.forename: Adonina
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Tardon
authors.forename: Reina
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Garcia-Closas
authors.forename: Consol
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Serra
authors.forename: Alfredo
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Carrato
authors.forename: Núria
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Malats
authors.forename: Nathaniel
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Rothman
authors.forename: Debra
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Silverman
authors.forename: Manolis
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kogevinas
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D004203:Disinfection; D004326:Drinking; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D005260:Female; D007722:Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice; D006801:Humans; D006920:Hygiene; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012923:Social Class; D013030:Spain; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013550:Swimming; D022882:Trihalomethanes / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D001749:Urinary Bladder Neoplasms / Q000453:epidemiology*; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D014881:Water Supply
chemical_list: D022882:Trihalomethanes; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical