title: A review of modern insulin analogue pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles in type 2 diabetes: improvements and limitations.
abstract: Insulin analogues have been engineered to enhance desired molecular properties without altering immunogenicity. The majority of insulin pharmacology studies are conducted in healthy volunteers and patients with type 1 diabetes. At present, there are more patients with type 2 than type 1 diabetes receiving insulin treatment. As the responsibility for initiating insulin therapy in these patients continues to shift to primary care, it will be important for general practitioners to understand the different pharmacological properties of insulin preparations in patients with type 2 diabetes, so that treatment can be adapted to meet patients' physiological and lifestyle requirements. The purpose of this review is to summarize pharmacological studies of insulin analogues in patients with type 2 diabetes. Faster onset of action of rapid acting insulin analogues has improved postprandial glycaemic control. Biphasic insulin analogues are associated with a lower incidence of nocturnal hypoglycaemia compared with human biphasic preparations and allow for intensification from once to twice or thrice daily dosing. More predictable glycaemic-lowering profiles of the insulin analogues have also led to reductions in nocturnal hypoglycaemia, particularly comparing long-acting insulin analogues with protaminated human insulin. Enhancing insulin self-association and reversible binding with albumin has led to further reductions in variability. However, improvements can still be made. Effective once daily clinical dosing of long-acting insulin analogues is not possible in all patients. In addition, the protaminated component of biphasic insulin analogues do not provide the duration of action or profile for physiological basal insulin replacement and neither insulin glargine nor insulin detemir are suitable for mixing with other insulin analogues as this would substantially alter their pharmacokinetic properties. Enhancing the pharmacological predictability and extending the duration of action could simplify insulin titration and further reduce the incidence of hypoglycaemia.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, UK. marc.evans2@ntlworld.com
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Evans
authors.forename: P M
authors.initials: PM
authors.lastname: Schumm-Draeger
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Vora
authors.forename: A B
authors.initials: AB
authors.lastname: King
mesh_terms: D003924:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 / Q000188:drug therapy*; D004334:Drug Administration Schedule; D006801:Humans; D007004:Hypoglycemic Agents / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000493:pharmacokinetics* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D007328:Insulin / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000493:pharmacokinetics* / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D011788:Quality of Life
chemical_list: D007004:Hypoglycemic Agents; D007328:Insulin