title: Smoking habit, immune suppression, oral contraceptive use, and hormone replacement therapy use and cervical carcinogenesis: a review of the literature.
abstract: High-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are involved in the etiopathogenesis of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and cervical cancer. After taking HPV into account, smoking habit appears to be the most significant environmental risk factor, and the risk of this malignancy increases significantly with intensity and duration of smoking. Women with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection experience a higher incidence of CIN and invasive cervical cancer. Among HIV+ women, the highly active antiretroviral therapy increases the regression rate of CIN, but the majority of these lesions do not regress to normal. As far as oral contraceptives (OCs), a systematic review of 28 studies found that, compared with never pill users, the relative risk (RR) of cervical cancer increased with increasing duration of OC use. The results were similar for squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma, and the RRs decreased after pill discontinuation. However, by weighing risks and benefits, the World Health Organization does not recommend any change in OC practice. There is no correlation between hormone replacement therapy and cervical cancer. Experimental data have shown that estradiol and progesterone can modulate the host immune response to HPV16. Prophylactic vaccination in conjunction with cervical screening is the best prevention strategy for cervical cancer.
authors: Department of Procreative Medicine, Division of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy. a.gadducci@obgyn.med.unipi.it
authors: Angiolo
authors: A
authors: Gadducci
authors: Cecilia
authors: C
authors: Barsotti
authors: Stefania
authors: S
authors: Cosio
authors: Lavinia
authors: L
authors: Domenici
authors: Andrea
authors: A
authors: Riccardo Genazzani
mesh_terms: D003276:Contraceptives, Oral / Q000009:adverse effects*; D015914:Estrogen Replacement Therapy / Q000009:adverse effects; D005260:Female; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000503:physiopathology; D020249:Hormone Replacement Therapy / Q000009:adverse effects*; D006801:Humans; D007165:Immunosuppression Therapy / Q000009:adverse effects*; D009361:Neoplasm Invasiveness; D030361:Papillomavirus Infections / Q000503:physiopathology; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects*; D002583:Uterine Cervical Neoplasms / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology* / Q000473:pathology; D002578:Uterine Cervical Dysplasia / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology* / Q000473:pathology
chemical_list: D003276:Contraceptives, Oral