title: Lottery-based versus fixed incentives to increase clinicians' response to surveys.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To compare the effects of lottery-based and fixed incentives on clinicians' response to surveys.
  
  
  METHODS
  Three randomized trials with fixed payments and actuarially equivalent lotteries.
  
  
  METHODS
  Trial 1 compared a low-probability/high-payout lottery, a high-probability/low-payout lottery, and no incentive. Trial 2 compared a moderate-probability/moderate-payout lottery with an unconditional fixed payment (payment sent with questionnaire). Trial 3 compared a moderate-probability/moderate-payout lottery with a conditional fixed payment (payment promised following response).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Neither the low-probability nor high-probability lotteries improved response compared with no incentive. Unconditional fixed payments produced significantly greater response than actuarially equivalent lotteries, but conditional fixed payments did not.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Lottery-based incentives do not improve clinicians' response rates compared with no incentives, and they are inferior to unconditional fixed payments.
authors.affiliation: Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, 723 Blockley Hall, 423 Guardian Drive, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6021, USA. shalpern@exchange.upenn.edu
authors.forename: Scott D
authors.initials: SD
authors.lastname: Halpern
authors.forename: Rachel
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Kohn
authors.forename: Aaron
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Dornbrand-Lo
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Metkus
authors.forename: David A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Asch
authors.forename: Kevin G
authors.initials: KG
authors.lastname: Volpp
mesh_terms: D001291:Attitude of Health Personnel; D016009:Chi-Square Distribution; D002755:Choice Behavior; D006801:Humans; D009042:Motivation; D010820:Physicians / Q000523:psychology*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014040:Token Economy