title: Substance flow analysis: a case study of fluoride exposure through food and beverages in young children living in Ethiopia.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Dental and skeletal fluorosis is endemic in the Ethiopian Rift Valley. Children are especially vulnerable to excessive fluoride intake because their permanent teeth are still being formed. Strategies to reduce the total fluoride intake by children are thus warranted.
  
  
  METHODS
  By combining the results of field studies in Ethiopia, the relevant pathways for fluoride intake have been identified in 28 children 2-5 years of age living in two villages on the Wonji Shoa Sugar Estate in the Ethiopian Rift Valley. The focus of the present study was to simulate the fluoride intake of the children using the methods of material flow analysis (MFA) and substance flow analysis.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  With a model based on MFA, we quantified the potential reduction in total fluoride intake given different scenarios-for example, by reducing the fluoride intake from drinking water and cooking water. The results show clearly that only by removing fluoride completely from both drinking and cooking water does the probability of remaining below the daily tolerable upper intake level exceed 50%. Both prepared food and food ingredients must be taken into consideration when assessing the total fluoride intake by children living in high-fluoride areas.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This knowledge will help health personnel, the government, and the food authorities to give scientifically based advice on strategies for reducing the total fluoride intake by children living in high-fluoride areas in the Ethiopian Rift Valley.
authors.affiliation: National Institute of Nutrition and Seafood Research, Bergen, Norway. mma@nifes.no
authors.forename: Marian Kjellevold
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Malde
authors.forename: Ruth
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Scheidegger
authors.forename: Kåre
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Julshamn
authors.forename: Hans-Peter
authors.initials: HP
authors.lastname: Bader
mesh_terms: D002675:Child, Preschool; D004032:Diet / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000032:analysis / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000032:analysis*; D005002:Ethiopia; D005260:Female; D005459:Fluorides / Q000032:analysis*; D005504:Food Analysis; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D014881:Water Supply / Q000032:analysis
chemical_list: D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D005459:Fluorides