title: The cost-effectiveness of three screening alternatives for people with diabetes with no or early diabetic retinopathy.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine whether biennial eye evaluation or telemedicine screening are cost-effective alternatives to current recommendations for the estimated 10 million people aged 30-84 with diabetes but no or minimal diabetic retinopathy.
  
  
  METHODS
  United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, American Academy of Ophthalmology Preferred Practice Patterns, Medicare Payment Schedule.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cost-effectiveness Monte Carlo simulation.
  
  
  METHODS
  Literature review, analysis of existing surveys.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Biennial eye evaluation was the most cost-effective treatment option when the ability to detect other eye conditions was included in the model. Telemedicine was most cost-effective when other eye conditions were not considered or when telemedicine was assumed to detect refractive error. The current annual eye evaluation recommendation was costly compared with either treatment alternative. Self-referral was most cost-effective up to a willingness to pay (WTP) of U.S.$37,600, with either biennial or annual evaluation most cost-effective at higher WTP levels.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Annual eye evaluations are costly and add little benefit compared with either plausible alternative. More research on the ability of telemedicine to detect other eye conditions is needed to determine whether it is more cost-effective than biennial eye evaluation.
authors.affiliation: RTI International, 2951 Flowers Road, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA. drein@rti.org
authors.forename: David B
authors.initials: DB
authors.lastname: Rein
authors.forename: John S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: Wittenborn
authors.forename: Xinzhi
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.forename: Benjamin A
authors.initials: BA
authors.lastname: Allaire
authors.forename: Michael S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Song
authors.forename: Ronald
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Klein
authors.forename: Jinan B
authors.initials: JB
authors.lastname: Saaddine
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D003362:Cost-Benefit Analysis; D003930:Diabetic Retinopathy / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D006302:Health Services Research; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008403:Mass Screening / Q000191:economics*; D008875:Middle Aged; D009010:Monte Carlo Method; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D015995:Prevalence; D019057:Quality-Adjusted Life Years; D018570:Risk Assessment; D017216:Telemedicine / Q000191:economics*; D006113:United Kingdom / Q000453:epidemiology; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology