title: Cotton pest management practices and the selection of pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles gambiae population in northern Benin.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Pyrethroid insecticides, carbamate and organophosphate are the classes of insecticides commonly used in agriculture for crop protection in Benin. Pyrethroids remain the only class of insecticides recommended by the WHO for impregnation of bed nets. Unfortunately, the high level of pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles gambiae s.l., threatens to undermine the success of pyrethroid treated nets. This study focuses on the investigation of agricultural practices in cotton growing areas, and their direct impact on larval populations of An. gambiae in surrounding breeding sites.
  
  
  METHODS
  The protocol was based on the collection of agro-sociological data where farmers were subjected to semi-structured questionnaires based on the strategies used for crop protection. This was complemented by bioassay tests to assess the susceptibility of malaria vectors to various insecticides. Molecular analysis was performed to characterize the resistance genes and the molecular forms of An. gambiae. Insecticide residues in soil samples from breeding sites were investigated to determine major factors that can inhibit the normal growth of mosquito larvae by exposing susceptible and resistant laboratory strains.
  
  
  RESULTS
  There is a common use by local farmers of mineral fertilizer NPK at 200 kg/ha and urea at 50 kg/hectare following insecticide treatments in both the Calendar Control Program (CCP) and the Targeted Intermittent Control Program (TICP). By contrast, no chemicals are involved in Biological Program (BP) where farmers use organic and natural fertilizers which include animal excreta.Susceptibility test results confirmed a high resistance to DDT. Mean mortality of An. gambiae collected from the farms practicing CCP, TICP and BP methods were 33%, 42% and 65% respectively. An. gambiae populations from areas using the CCP and TICP programs showed resistance to permethrin with mortality of 50% and 58% respectively. By contrast, bioassay test results of An. gambiae from BP areas gave a high level of susceptibility to permethrin with an average mortality of 94%.Molecular analysis identified An. gambiae s.s, and An. arabiensis with a high predominance of An. gambiae s.s (90%). The two molecular forms, M and S, were also determined with a high frequency of the S form (96%).The Kdr gene seemed the main target- site resistance mechanism detected in CCP, TICP, and BP areas at the rates ranging from 32 to 78%. The frequency of ace-1R gene was very low (< 0.1).The presence of inhibiting factors in soil samples under insecticide treatments were found and affected negatively in delaying the development of An. gambiae larval populations.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This research shows that Kdr has spread widely in An. gambiae, mainly in CCP and TICP areas where pyrethroids are extensively used. To reduce the negative impact of pesticides use in cotton crop protection, the application of BP-like programs, which do not appear to select for vector resistance would be useful. These results could serve as scientific evidence of the spread of resistance due to a massive agricultural use of insecticides and contribute to the management of pesticides usage on cotton crops hence reducing the selection pressure of insecticides on An. gambiae populations.
authors.affiliation: Centre de Recherche Entomologique de Cotonou (CREC), Cotonou, République du Bénin. anges33@yahoo.fr
authors.forename: Anges
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Yadouleton
authors.forename: Thibaud
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Martin
authors.forename: Gil
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Padonou
authors.forename: Fabrice
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Chandre
authors.forename: Alex
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Asidi
authors.forename: Luc
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Djogbenou
authors.forename: Roch
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Dabiré
authors.forename: Rock
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Aïkpon
authors.forename: Michel
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Boko
authors.forename: Isabelle
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Glitho
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Akogbeto
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000852:Anopheles / Q000187:drug effects*; D001541:Benin; D005260:Female; D003368:Gossypium / Q000469:parasitology*; D006801:Humans; D007305:Insecticide Resistance; D007306:Insecticides / Q000494:pharmacology*; D021261:Parasitic Sensitivity Tests; D010571:Pest Control / Q000379:methods*; D011722:Pyrethrins / Q000494:pharmacology*; D012641:Selection, Genetic; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D016019:Survival Analysis
chemical_list: D007306:Insecticides; D011722:Pyrethrins