title: Why tocotrienols work better: insights into the in vitro anti-cancer mechanism of vitamin E.
abstract: The selective constraint of liver uptake and the sustained metabolism of tocotrienols (T3) demonstrate the need for a prompt detoxification of this class of lipophilic vitamers, and thus the potential for cytotoxic effects in hepatic and extra-hepatic tissues. Hypomethylated (γ and δ) forms of T3 show the highest in vitro and in vivo metabolism and are also the most potent natural xenobiotics of the entire vitamin E family of compounds. These stimulate a stress response with the induction of detoxification and antioxidant genes. Depending on the intensity of this response, these genes may confer cell protection or alternatively they stimulate a senescence-like phenotype with cell cycle inhibition or even mitochondrial toxicity and apoptosis. In cancer cells, the uptake rate and thus the cell content of these vitamers is again higher for the hypomethylated forms, and it is the critical factor that drives the dichotomy between protection and toxicity responses to different T3 forms and doses. These aspects suggest the potential for marked biological activity of hypomethylated "highly metabolized" T3 that may result in cytoprotection and cancer prevention or even chemotherapeutic effects. Cytotoxicity and metabolism of hypomethylated T3 have been extensively investigated in vitro using different cell model systems that will be discussed in this review paper as regard molecular mechanisms and possible relevance in cancer therapy.
authors.affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Applied Biochemistry and Nutritional Sciences, University of Perugia, Via del Giochetto, 06126, Perugia, Italy.
authors.forename: Valentina
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Viola
authors.forename: Francesca
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Pilolli
authors.forename: Marta
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Piroddi
authors.forename: Elisa
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Pierpaoli
authors.forename: Fiorenza
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Orlando
authors.forename: Mauro
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Provinciali
authors.forename: Michele
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Betti
authors.forename: Francesco
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Mazzini
authors.forename: Francesco
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Galli