title: Assessment of genotoxic potency of sulfate-rich surface waters on medicinal leech and human leukocytes using different versions of the Comet assay.
abstract: The aim of the present study was to investigate how exposure to sulfate-rich surface waters affects the level of primary DNA damage in hemocytes of leech Hirudo medicinalis. Samples of surface water were collected at two sites near a gypsum factory (Knin, Croatia) and two reference sites. In the laboratory, samples were subjected to detailed chemical analysis and used in toxicity testing. For that purpose, previously acclimatized individuals of H. medicinalis were sub-chronically exposed (for 28 days) to tested water samples. Levels of primary DNA damage were evaluated using the alkaline Comet assay in hemocytes collected on days 7, 14, 21 and 28 of exposure and compared with their baseline values. Genotoxic potency of the water sample with the highest sulfate concentration was further evaluated using the alkaline, neutral and hOGG1-modified Comet assay on human peripheral blood leukocytes exposed ex vivo for 30 min. The purpose was to explore which mechanisms are responsible for DNA damage. Chemical analysis revealed that sulfate concentrations in two water samples collected in Mali Kukar Lake (1630 mg/L SO₄) and Kosovčica River (823.3 mg/L SO₄) exceeded the WHO and US EPA defined limits for sulfate in drinking water. Increased levels of metals were found only in the water sample collected in Mali Kukar Lake. However, of the 65 elements analyzed, only nickel and titanium exceed the value legally accepted in Croatia for drinking water. The levels of DNA damage, estimated by the alkaline Comet assay in hemocytes of medicinal leech, increased with the duration of exposure to two sulfate-rich water samples. Since hemocytes responded sensitively to treatment, they could be used for biomonitoring purposes. As observed on treated human peripheral blood leukocytes, all versions of the Comet assay were effective in detecting DNA damage, which was measured in samples with sulfate concentrations equal to or higher than the legally accepted levels for drinking water. Based on the obtained results, it can be assumed that genotoxicity was a consequence both of direct (single- and double-strand DNA breaks) and indirect effects (oxidative damage) caused by the combined effects of all contaminants present in the tested water samples. Our results indicate the need for in situ monitoring and purification of gypsum mine water prior to its release in the natural environment.
authors.affiliation: Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia. zmihalj@zg.biol.pmf.hr
authors.forename: Zlatko
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Mihaljević
authors.forename: Ivančica
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Ternjej
authors.forename: Igor
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Stanković
authors.forename: Marija
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Ivković
authors.forename: Davor
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Zelježić
authors.forename: Marin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Mladinić
authors.forename: Nevenka
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Kopjar
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000818:Animals; D020552:Comet Assay / Q000379:methods*; D017523:Croatia; D053903:DNA Breaks, Double-Stranded; D004249:DNA Damage; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000737:chemistry*; D006434:Hemocytes / Q000187:drug effects; D047709:Hirudo medicinalis / Q000187:drug effects*; D006801:Humans; D007962:Leukocytes / Q000187:drug effects*; D007963:Leukocytes, Mononuclear / Q000187:drug effects*; D008297:Male; D008302:Mali; D013431:Sulfates / Q000633:toxicity*; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D014881:Water Supply
chemical_list: D013431:Sulfates; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical