title: Function and evolution of sterile sex organs in cryptically dioecious Petasites tricholobus (Asteraceae).
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Why are sterile anthers and carpels retained in some flowering plants, given their likely costs? To address this question, a cryptically dioecious species, Petasites tricholobus, in which male and female plants each have two floret types that appear pistillate and hermaphroditic, was studied. The aim was to understand the function of sterile hermaphroditic florets in females. In addition, the first examination of functions of sterile female structures in male plants was conducted in the hermaphroditic florets on males of this species. These female structures are exceptionally large in this species despite being sterile.
  
  
  METHODS
  Differences in floret morphology between the sex morphs were documented and the possible functions of sterile sex organs investigated using manipulative experiments. Tests were carried out to find out if sterile female structures in male florets attract pollinators and if they aid in pollen dispersal, also to find out if the presence and quantity of sterile hermaphroditic florets in females increase pollinator attraction and reproductive success. To investigate what floret types provide nectar, all types of florets were examined under a scanning electron microscope to search for nectaries.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The sterile female structures in male florets did not increase pollinator visits but were essential to secondary pollen presentation, which significantly enhanced pollen dispersal. Sterile pistillate florets on male plants did not contribute to floral display and disappeared in nearly half of the male plants. The sterile hermaphroditic florets on female plants attracted pollinators by producing nectar and enhanced seed production.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The presence of female structures in male florets and hermaphroditic florets on female plants is adaptive despite being sterile, and may be evolutionarily stable. However, the pistillate florets on male plants appear non-adaptive and are presumably in decline. Differential fates of the sterile sex organs in the species are determined by both the historical constraints and the ecological functions.
authors.affiliation: College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, PR China.
authors.forename: Qian
authors.initials: Q
authors.lastname: Yu
authors.forename: Deng-Xiu
authors.initials: DX
authors.lastname: Li
authors.forename: Wei
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Luo
authors.forename: You-Hao
authors.initials: YH
authors.lastname: Guo
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D005202:Asia, Eastern; D035264:Flowers / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology*; D007313:Insecta / Q000502:physiology; D036901:Petasites / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology*; D051479:Plant Infertility; D011058:Pollen / Q000502:physiology; D012098:Reproduction / Q000502:physiology; D012639:Seeds / Q000502:physiology