title: Human exposure, biomarkers, and fate of organotins in the environment.
abstract: Organotin compounds result from the addition of organic moieties to inorganic tin.Thus, one or more tin-carbon bonds exist in each organotin molecule. The organo-tin compounds are ubiquitous in the environment. Organotin compounds have many uses, including those as fungicides and stabilizers in plastics, among others in industry. The widespread use of organotins as antifouling agents in boat paints has resulted in pollution of freshwater and marine ecosystems. The presence of organotin compounds in freshwater and marine ecosystems is now understood to be a threat, because of the amounts found in water and the toxicity of some organotin compounds to aquatic organisms, and perhaps to humans as well. Organotin com-pounds are regarded by many to be global pollutants of a stature similar to biphenyl,mercury, and the polychlorinated dibenzodioxins. This stature results from the high toxicity, persistence, bioaccumulation, and endocrine disruptive features of even very low levels of selected organotin compounds.Efforts by selected governmental agencies and others have been undertaken to find a global solution to organotin pollution. France was the first country to ban the use of the organotins in 1980. This occurred before the international maritime organization (IMO) called for a global treaty to ban the application of tributyltin (TBT)-based paints. In this chapter, we review the organotin compounds with emphasis on the human exposure, fate, and distribution of them in the environment. The widespread use of the organotins and their high stability have led to contamination of some aquatic ecosystems. As a result, residues of the organotins may reach humans via food consumption. Notwithstanding the risk of human exposure, only limited data are available on the levels at which the organotins exist in foodstuffs consumed by humans. Moreover, the response of marine species to the organotins, such as TBT, has not been thoroughly investigated. Therefore, more data on the organotins and the consequences of exposure to them are needed. In particular, we believe the following areas need attention: expanded toxicity testing in aquatic species, human exposure, human body burdens, and the research to identify biomarkers for testing the toxicity of the organotins to marine invertebrates.
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, 7535, South Africa. okoroowo@yahoo.com
authors.forename: Hussein K
authors.initials: HK
authors.lastname: Okoro
authors.forename: Olalekan S
authors.initials: OS
authors.lastname: Fatoki
authors.forename: Folahan A
authors.initials: FA
authors.lastname: Adekola
authors.forename: Bhekumusa J
authors.initials: BJ
authors.lastname: Ximba
authors.forename: Reinette G
authors.initials: RG
authors.lastname: Snyman
authors.forename: Beatrice
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Opeolu
mesh_terms: D000327:Adsorption; D000818:Animals; D059001:Aquatic Organisms / Q000187:drug effects; D001673:Biodegradation, Environmental; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000032:analysis*; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000032:analysis*; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000032:analysis* / Q000633:toxicity; D020387:Food Chain; D019015:Geologic Sediments / Q000737:chemistry; D006801:Humans; D009947:Organotin Compounds / Q000032:analysis* / Q000633:toxicity; D012989:Soil Pollutants / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D009947:Organotin Compounds; D012989:Soil Pollutants; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical