title: Isolation of non-tuberculous mycobacteria from pastoral ecosystems of Uganda: public health significance.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The importance of non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) infections in humans and animals in sub-Saharan Africa at the human-environment-livestock-wildlife interface has recently received increased attention. NTM are environmental opportunistic pathogens of humans and animals. Recent studies in pastoral ecosystems of Uganda detected NTM in humans with cervical lymphadenitis and cattle with lesions compatible with bovine tuberculosis. However, little is known about the source of these mycobacteria in Uganda. The aim of this study was to isolate and identify NTM in the environment of pastoral communities in Uganda, as well as assess the potential risk factors and the public health significance of NTM in these ecosystems.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total of 310 samples (soil, water and faecal from cattle and pigs) were examined for mycobacteria. Isolates were identified by the INNO-Lipa test and by 16S rDNA sequencing. Additionally, a questionnaire survey involving 231 pastoralists was conducted during sample collection. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics followed by a multivariable logistic regression analysis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Forty-eight isolates of NTM were detected; 25.3% of soil samples, 11.8% of water and 9.1% from animal faecal samples contained mycobacteria. Soils around water sources were the most contaminated with NTM (29.8%). Of these samples, M. fortuitum-peregrinum complex, M. avium complex, M. gordonae, and M. nonchromogenicum were the most frequently detected mycobacteria. Drinking untreated compared to treated water (OR = 33), use of valley dam versus stream water for drinking and other domestic use (OR = 20), sharing of water sources with wild primates compared to antelopes (OR = 4.6), sharing of water sources with domestic animals (OR = 5.3), and close contact with cattle or other domestic animals (OR = 13.8) were the most plausible risk factors for humans to come in contact with NTM in the environment.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The study detected a wide range of potentially pathogenic NTM from the environment around the pastoral communities in Uganda. Drinking untreated water and living in close contact with cattle or other domestic animals may be risk factors associated with the possibility of humans and animals acquiring NTM infections from these ecosystems.
authors.affiliation: Department of Veterinary Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. clokankya@yahoo.com
authors.forename: Clovice
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Kankya
authors.forename: Adrian
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Muwonge
authors.forename: Berit
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Djønne
authors.forename: Musso
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Munyeme
authors.forename: John
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Opuda-Asibo
authors.forename: Eystein
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Skjerve
authors.forename: James
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Oloya
authors.forename: Vigdis
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Edvardsen
authors.forename: Tone B
authors.initials: TB
authors.lastname: Johansen
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002417:Cattle / Q000382:microbiology; D017753:Ecosystem; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods; D005243:Feces / Q000382:microbiology; D006801:Humans; D009161:Mycobacterium / Q000145:classification / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D011634:Public Health; D012988:Soil Microbiology; D014454:Uganda; D014871:Water Microbiology