title: Neonatal mortality of elk driven by climate, predator phenology and predator community composition.
abstract: 1. Understanding the interaction among predators and between predation and climate is critical to understanding the mechanisms for compensatory mortality. We used data from 1999 radio-marked neonatal elk (Cervus elaphus) calves from 12 populations in the north-western United States to test for effects of predation on neonatal survival, and whether predation interacted with climate to render mortality compensatory. 2. Weibull survival models with a random effect for each population were fit as a function of the number of predator species in a community (3-5), seven indices of climatic variability, sex, birth date, birth weight, and all interactions between climate and predators. Cumulative incidence functions (CIF) were used to test whether the effects of individual species of predators were additive or compensatory. 3. Neonatal elk survival to 3 months declined following hotter previous summers and increased with higher May precipitation, especially in areas with wolves and/or grizzly bears. Mortality hazards were significantly lower in systems with only coyotes (Canis latrans), cougars (Puma concolor) and black bears (Ursus americanus) compared to higher mortality hazards experienced with gray wolves (Canis lupus) and grizzly bears (Ursus horribilis). 4. In systems with wolves and grizzly bears, mortality by cougars decreased, and predation by bears was the dominant cause of neonatal mortality. Only bear predation appeared additive and occurred earlier than other predators, which may render later mortality by other predators compensatory as calves age. Wolf predation was low and most likely a compensatory source of mortality for neonatal elk calves. 5. Functional redundancy and interspecific competition among predators may combine with the effects of climate on vulnerability to predation to drive compensatory mortality of neonatal elk calves. The exception was the evidence for additive bear predation. These results suggest that effects of predation by recovering wolves on neonatal elk survival, a contentious issue for management of elk populations, may be less important than the composition of the predator community. Future studies would benefit by synthesizing overwinter calf and adult-survival data sets, ideally from experimental studies, to test the roles of predation in annual compensatory and additive mortality of elk.
authors: Wildlife Biology Program, Department of Ecosystem and Conservation Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA.
authors: Kathleen A
authors: KA
authors: Griffin
authors: Mark
authors: M
authors: Hebblewhite
authors: Hugh S
authors: HS
authors: Robinson
authors: Peter
authors: P
authors: Zager
authors: Shannon M
authors: SM
authors: Barber-Meyer
authors: David
authors: D
authors: Christianson
authors: Scott
authors: S
authors: Creel
authors: Nyeema C
authors: NC
authors: Harris
authors: Mark A
authors: MA
authors: Hurley
authors: DeWaine H
authors: DH
authors: Jackson
authors: Bruce K
authors: BK
authors: Johnson
authors: Woodrow L
authors: WL
authors: Myers
authors: Jarod D
authors: JD
authors: Raithel
authors: Mike
authors: M
authors: Schlegel
authors: Bruce L
authors: BL
authors: Smith
authors: Craig
authors: C
authors: White
authors: P J
authors: PJ
authors: White