title: Heart regeneration.
abstract: Heart failure plagues industrialized nations, killing more people than any other disease. It usually results from a deficiency of specialized cardiac muscle cells known as cardiomyocytes, and a robust therapy to regenerate lost myocardium could help millions of patients every year. Heart regeneration is well documented in amphibia and fish and in developing mammals. After birth, however, human heart regeneration becomes limited to very slow cardiomyocyte replacement. Several experimental strategies to remuscularize the injured heart using adult stem cells and pluripotent stem cells, cellular reprogramming and tissue engineering are in progress. Although many challenges remain, these interventions may eventually lead to better approaches to treat or prevent heart failure.
authors: Department of Pathology, Center for Cardiovascular Biology, Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA.
authors: Michael A
authors: MA
authors: Laflamme
authors: Charles E
authors: CE
authors: Murry
references: Nat Med. 2006 Apr;12(4):452-8
references: 16582915
references: Science. 2011 Feb 25;331(6020):1078-80
references: 21350179
references: Am J Cardiol. 2004 Jul 1;94(1):92-5
references: 15219514
references: Eur Heart J. 1993 Jan;14(1):40-7
references: 8432290
references: Nat Med. 2007 Aug;13(8):962-9
references: 17632525
references: Cell Stem Cell. 2010 Nov 5;7(5):618-30
references: 20888316
references: Nat Biotechnol. 2007 Sep;25(9):1015-24
references: 17721512
references: Physiol Rev. 2007 Apr;87(2):521-44
references: 17429040
references: Am J Physiol. 1997 Jan;272(1 Pt 2):H220-6
references: 9038941
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Sep 1;106(35):14990-5
references: 19706385
references: Circ Res. 2004 Oct 29;95(9):911-21
references: 15472116
references: Am J Pathol. 1937 Sep;13(5):845-854.5
references: 19970351
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Aug 28;104(35):14068-73
references: 17709737
references: Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 2004;6:41-75
references: 15255762
references: Nature. 2008 May 22;453(7194):524-8
references: 18432194
references: Science. 2002 Dec 13;298(5601):2188-90
references: 12481136
references: J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009 Dec 8;54(24):2277-86
references: 19958962
references: Circulation. 2002 Jan 1;105(1):93-8
references: 11772882
references: Basic Res Cardiol. 2010 Jul;105(4):545-56
references: 20119835
references: Cardiovasc Res. 2008 Apr 1;78(1):18-25
references: 18079102
references: World J Cardiol. 2010 May 26;2(5):107-11
references: 21160711
references: Nature. 2001 Apr 5;410(6829):701-5
references: 11287958
references: Recent Adv Stud Cardiac Struct Metab. 1975;8:373-86
references: 129834
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Jan 30;104(5):1643-8
references: 17251350
references: Circ Res. 2010 Oct 1;107(7):913-22
references: 20671238
references: Circ Res. 2009 Jan 2;104(1):e1-7
references: 19038863
references: Circ Res. 2003 Jul 11;93(1):32-9
references: 12791707
references: Circulation. 2009 Oct 13;120(15):1513-23
references: 19786631
references: Circ Res. 2010 Jul 23;107(2):305-15
references: 20522802
references: Cell Stem Cell. 2008 Nov 6;3(5):568-74
references: 18983970
references: Cell. 2006 Aug 25;126(4):663-76
references: 16904174
references: Circulation. 2007 Feb 20;115(7):896-908
references: 17283259
references: Nature. 2004 Apr 8;428(6983):668-73
references: 15034594
references: Circ Res. 2010 Mar 19;106(5):971-80
references: 20110532
references: Science. 1998 Nov 6;282(5391):1145-7
references: 9804556
references: Circulation. 2010 May 11;121(18):1992-2000
references: 20421520
references: Nat Med. 2007 Aug;13(8):970-4
references: 17660827
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Feb 10;106(6):1808-13
references: 19193854
references: Circulation. 1998 Mar 17;97(10):971-8
references: 9529265
references: Cardiovasc Res. 1997 Oct;36(1):45-51
references: 9415271
references: Science. 2009 Apr 3;324(5923):98-102
references: 19342590
references: Circ Res. 2008 May 9;102(9):1008-10
references: 18436793
references: Stem Cells. 2007 May;25(5):1136-44
references: 17255522
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Jun 5;104(23):9685-90
references: 17522258
references: Recent Adv Stud Cardiac Struct Metab. 1975;6:343-55
references: 128080
references: J Exp Zool. 1974 Feb;187(2):249-53
references: 4813417
references: Cell. 2006 Dec 15;127(6):1137-50
references: 17123591
references: Differentiation. 2008 Nov;76(9):958-70
references: 18557764
references: Circulation. 2008 Aug 5;118(6):649-57
references: 18645055
references: Nat Cell Biol. 2011 Mar;13(3):215-22
references: 21278734
references: Circ Res. 2008 Oct 10;103(8):825-35
references: 18787193
references: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2010 Dec;49(6):941-9
references: 20854826
references: J Clin Invest. 1996 Nov 15;98(10):2209-17
references: 8941636
references: Nature. 2008 Feb 21;451(7181):937-42
references: 18288183
references: Circ Res. 2009 Feb 27;104(4):e30-41
references: 19213953
references: J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006 May 2;47(9):1777-85
references: 16682301
references: J Clin Invest. 2001 Aug;108(3):407-14
references: 11489934
references: Cell. 2006 Dec 15;127(6):1151-65
references: 17123592
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Aug 24;107(34):15211-6
references: 20696917
references: Cell Stem Cell. 2008 Jul 3;3(1):69-84
references: 18593560
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Oct 17;103(42):15546-51
references: 17032753
references: Cell. 2010 Aug 6;142(3):375-86
references: 20691899
references: Virchows Arch B Cell Pathol Incl Mol Pathol. 1991;61(4):289-94
references: 1685821
references: N Engl J Med. 2001 Jun 7;344(23):1750-7
references: 11396441
references: Cell. 2009 Jul 23;138(2):257-70
references: 19632177
references: PLoS One. 2009;4(4):e5407
references: 19404384
references: Nature. 2010 Mar 25;464(7288):601-5
references: 20336144
references: Nature. 2008 May 15;453(7193):322-9
references: 18480813
references: Science. 2009 Oct 16;326(5951):426-9
references: 19833966
references: Cardiovasc Res. 2010 Jul 1;87(1):40-9
references: 20118202
references: Circulation. 2010 Jan 19;121(2):293-305
references: 20048209
references: PLoS One. 2010 Jun 15;5(6):e11134
references: 20559569
references: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 1986 Jan;18(1):39-53
references: 3950970
references: Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2010 Aug;8(8):1107-26
references: 20670189
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Sep 29;106(39):16568-73
references: 19805339
references: Circ Res. 1998 Jul 13;83(1):15-26
references: 9670914
references: Cell. 2007 Nov 30;131(5):861-72
references: 18035408
references: Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1984 Jan;10(1):69-76
references: 6321412
references: Annu Rev Physiol. 2010;72:19-44
references: 20148665
references: Annu Rev Pathol. 2007;2:307-39
references: 18039102
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Dec 28;101(52):18129-34
references: 15604141
references: Circ Res. 2010 Sep 17;107(6):776-86
references: 20671236
references: Acta Histochem Suppl. 1990;39:225-37
references: 2150446
references: Stem Cells. 2009 Jul;27(7):1571-81
references: 19544463
references: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 1996 Aug;28(8):1737-46
references: 8877783
references: Circulation. 1999 Jul 13;100(2):193-202
references: 10402450
references: Circ Res. 2007 Feb 2;100(2):263-72
references: 17218605
references: Circ Res. 1991 Jun;68(6):1560-8
references: 2036710
references: FASEB J. 2007 May;21(7):1345-57
references: 17284483
references: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 1996 Jul;28(7):1463-77
references: 8841934
references: Nature. 2010 Mar 25;464(7288):606-9
references: 20336145
references: J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007 Nov 6;50(19):1884-93
references: 17980256
references: Science. 2007 Dec 21;318(5858):1917-20
references: 18029452
references: Exp Cell Res. 2011 Jan 15;317(2):188-94
references: 20828558
references: Nature. 2004 Apr 8;428(6983):664-8
references: 15034593
references: Cell. 2006 Nov 3;127(3):607-19
references: 17081981