title: Photodynamic therapy of cancer: an update.
abstract: Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a clinically approved, minimally invasive therapeutic procedure that can exert a selective cytotoxic activity toward malignant cells. The procedure involves administration of a photosensitizing agent followed by irradiation at a wavelength corresponding to an absorbance band of the sensitizer. In the presence of oxygen, a series of events lead to direct tumor cell death, damage to the microvasculature, and induction of a local inflammatory reaction. Clinical studies revealed that PDT can be curative, particularly in early stage tumors. It can prolong survival in patients with inoperable cancers and significantly improve quality of life. Minimal normal tissue toxicity, negligible systemic effects, greatly reduced long-term morbidity, lack of intrinsic or acquired resistance mechanisms, and excellent cosmetic as well as organ function-sparing effects of this treatment make it a valuable therapeutic option for combination treatments. With a number of recent technological improvements, PDT has the potential to become integrated into the mainstream of cancer treatment.
authors: Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Cell Death Research and Therapy Laboratory, Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium.
authors: Patrizia
authors: P
authors: Agostinis
authors: Kristian
authors: K
authors: Berg
authors: Keith A
authors: KA
authors: Cengel
authors: Thomas H
authors: TH
authors: Foster
authors: Albert W
authors: AW
authors: Girotti
authors: Sandra O
authors: SO
authors: Gollnick
authors: Stephen M
authors: SM
authors: Hahn
authors: Michael R
authors: MR
authors: Hamblin
authors: Asta
authors: A
authors: Juzeniene
authors: David
authors: D
authors: Kessel
authors: Mladen
authors: M
authors: Korbelik
authors: Johan
authors: J
authors: Moan
authors: Pawel
authors: P
authors: Mroz
authors: Dominika
authors: D
authors: Nowis
authors: Jacques
authors: J
authors: Piette
authors: Brian C
authors: BC
authors: Wilson
authors: Jakub
authors: J
authors: Golab
references: J Neurosurg Sci. 1980 Jul-Dec;24(3-4):119-29
references: 6267229
references: Am J Gastroenterol. 2005 Nov;100(11):2426-30
references: 16279895
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2006 Jun;38(5):500-8
references: 16634073
references: Clin Otolaryngol. 2007 Jun;32(3):185-9
references: 17550506
references: J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009 Aug 5;101(15):1044-8
references: 19564563
references: Cell Mol Life Sci. 2009 Jul;66(14):2275-83
references: 19333552
references: Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2005 Dec;56(6):569-77
references: 16001166
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2008 Oct 15;14(20):6564-73
references: 18927297
references: Pharm Res. 2000 Dec;17(12):1447-55
references: 11303952
references: Autophagy. 2006 Jul-Sep;2(3):238-40
references: 16874066
references: Lasers Med Sci. 2004;19(3):139-49
references: 15503248
references: J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 2006;25(1-2):7-28
references: 16566708
references: Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2007 May;56(5):649-58
references: 16947020
references: J Photochem Photobiol B. 1999 Sep-Oct;52(1-3):35-42
references: 10643073
references: Nature. 2005 Mar 31;434(7033):652-8
references: 15800626
references: J Am Chem Soc. 2007 Mar 7;129(9):2669-75
references: 17288423
references: Photochem Photobiol. 1999 Jun;69(6):703-7
references: 10378010
references: Lasers Surg Med. 1987;7(1):29-35
references: 3573934
references: Science. 1968 Nov 29;162(3857):963-70
references: 4972417
references: PLoS One. 2009 Aug 19;4(8):e6691
references: 19690617
references: J Pathol Bacteriol. 1963 Jul;86:99-102
references: 14019186
references: Lancet Oncol. 2006 May;7(5):392-401
references: 16648043
references: Autophagy. 2010 Jan;6(1):7-18
references: 19855190
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2003 Nov;78(5):496-502
references: 14653582
references: J Clin Oncol. 1993 Oct;11(10):1852-7
references: 8410109
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2008 Jul;40(5):332-41
references: 18563777
references: Br J Cancer. 2003 Jun 2;88(11):1772-9
references: 12771994
references: BJU Int. 2008 Aug 5;102(5):556-62
references: 18494829
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2009 Nov-Dec;85(6):1418-24
references: 19709384
references: Br J Dermatol. 2007 Aug;157(2):401-3
references: 17573890
references: Int J Radiat Biol. 2009 Nov;85(11):963-71
references: 19895273
references: Laryngoscope. 1998 Sep;108(9):1259-68
references: 9738739
references: Lasers Med Sci. 2008 Apr;23(2):203-10
references: 17610005
references: Cancer Res. 2005 Oct 15;65(20):9473-8
references: 16230411
references: Ann Thorac Surg. 1998 Oct;66(4):1128-33
references: 9800793
references: J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998 Jun 17;90(12):889-905
references: 9637138
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2005 Jan-Feb;81(1):106-13
references: 15382963
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2006 Apr 15;12(8):2517-25
references: 16638861
references: Dermatol Clin. 2007 Jan;25(1):101-9
references: 17126748
references: Ciba Found Symp. 1989;146:95-107; discussion 107-11
references: 2697539
references: Ann Surg. 2006 Aug;244(2):230-9
references: 16858185
references: Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2006 Dec;3(4):266-71
references: 25046991
references: Nat Rev Cancer. 2003 May;3(5):380-7
references: 12724736
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2006 Jun;38(5):509-15
references: 16788921
references: Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2007 Sep;4(3):202-12
references: 25047439
references: Phys Med Biol. 2005 Jun 7;50(11):2597-616
references: 15901957
references: J Clin Oncol. 2009 Jan 1;27(1):2-5
references: 19047306
references: Urology. 2003 Feb;61(2):338-41
references: 12597942
references: Cancer Res. 2004 Mar 15;64(6):2120-6
references: 15026352
references: Laryngorhinootologie. 1993 Jun;72(6):273-8
references: 8333880
references: Cancer Res. 2002 Jul 15;62(14):3956-61
references: 12124326
references: Curr Opin Immunol. 2004 Feb;16(1):21-5
references: 14734106
references: Radiat Res. 1998 Nov;150(5 Suppl):S146-56
references: 9806617
references: JAMA. 2006 Oct 25;296(16):1951-2
references: 17062851
references: Head Neck. 2004 Mar;26(3):232-40
references: 14999798
references: Cancer Res. 1999 Apr 15;59(8):1941-6
references: 10213504
references: J Urol. 2007 Nov;178(5):1974-9; discussion 1979
references: 17869307
references: Cancer Res. 1992 Sep 15;52(18):4914-21
references: 1387584
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2003 Sep;78(3):235-40
references: 14556309
references: J Photochem Photobiol B. 1992 Jul 15;14(3):261-2
references: 1432394
references: Br J Cancer. 1992 Dec;66(6):1037-43
references: 1457342
references: Bioconjug Chem. 2009 Oct 21;20(10):1836-42
references: 19754039
references: J Photochem Photobiol B. 2008 Nov 13;93(2):108-18
references: 18771933
references: Cancer Res. 2001 Aug 1;61(15):5824-32
references: 11479222
references: J Biol Chem. 2003 Jan 17;278(3):2021-9
references: 12379660
references: Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2004 May;1(1):57-64
references: 25048065
references: Br J Cancer. 2007 Nov 19;97(10):1381-7
references: 17971767
references: Chest. 2009 Aug;136(2):369-375
references: 19318660
references: Neoplasia. 2008 May;10(5):429-38
references: 18472960
references: Br J Dermatol. 2003 Mar;148(3):539-43
references: 12653747
references: J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1997 Dec;114(6):940-6; discussion 946-7
references: 9434689
references: J Drugs Dermatol. 2006 Feb;5(2):140-54
references: 16485882
references: Cancer Treat Res. 2007;134:493-514
references: 17633077
references: J Biol Chem. 1999 Jan 29;274(5):2988-3000
references: 9915837
references: J Photochem Photobiol B. 2001 Nov 1;64(1):55-61
references: 11705730
references: Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2001 Sep;258(7):349-52
references: 11699825
references: Br J Cancer. 2009 Feb 24;100(4):626-32
references: 19223911
references: Gastrointest Endosc. 2005 Oct;62(4):499-503
references: 16185960
references: Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2010 Jan;11(1):133-40
references: 20001435
references: Cancer Res. 2005 Feb 1;65(3):1018-26
references: 15705903
references: Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 1998 Jan;7(1):57-64
references: 15991918
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2004 Jul 1;10(13):4498-508
references: 15240542
references: Lasers Med Sci. 2003;18(3):128-33
references: 14505195
references: Cancer Lett. 1999 Mar 22;137(1):91-8
references: 10376798
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2003 Nov 1;9(14):5417-22
references: 14614028
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2001 Aug;74(2):318-22
references: 11547571
references: J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 2006;25(1-2):251-9
references: 16566722
references: Semin Surg Oncol. 1995 Jul-Aug;11(4):307-18
references: 7481368
references: Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2002 Jan;1(1):1-21
references: 12659143
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2008 May-Jun;84(3):809-14
references: 18179619
references: J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2010 Mar;17(2):125-31
references: 19455276
references: Br J Cancer. 1995 Aug;72(2):344-50
references: 7640216
references: Br J Cancer. 1995 Mar;71(3):625-8
references: 7880749
references: Photochem Photobiol. 1995 Oct;62(4):790-9
references: 7480156
references: Clin Dermatol. 2001 May-Jun;19(3):328-38
references: 11479045
references: Cancer Res. 1985 Feb;45(2):572-6
references: 3967232
references: Arch Surg. 1991 Jan;126(1):111-3
references: 1824676
references: Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2002;270:169-84
references: 12467251
references: Lasers Med Sci. 2008 Oct;23(4):361-7
references: 17926079
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2008 Sep-Oct;84(5):1257-64
references: 18435703
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2000;27(3):224-34
references: 11013384
references: Ann Thorac Surg. 2003 Mar;75(3):952-9
references: 12645723
references: Arch Dermatol. 2004 Jan;140(1):17-23
references: 14732655
references: Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2007 Dec;6(12):1275-83
references: 18046482
references: J Photochem Photobiol B. 1990 Nov;7(2-4):353-8
references: 2150861
references: Int J Cancer. 2000 Dec 1;88(5):798-803
references: 11072251
references: Photochem Photobiol. 1992 Mar;55(3):397-9
references: 1561237
references: Biochim Biophys Acta. 2007 Sep;1776(1):86-107
references: 17693025
references: Acta Derm Venereol. 2005;85(6):483-90
references: 16396794
references: Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2006 Aug;55(8):900-9
references: 16215717
references: Cancer Res. 2009 May 15;69(10):4235-43
references: 19435917
references: Eur J Dermatol. 2008 Sep-Oct;18(5):547-53
references: 18693158
references: Annu Rev Immunol. 2006;24:519-40
references: 16551258
references: Oncogene. 2006 Jun 8;25(24):3365-74
references: 16462769
references: Apoptosis. 2009 Aug;14(8):996-1007
references: 19360473
references: Cancer Res. 2002 Mar 15;62(6):1604-8
references: 11912128
references: J Dermatolog Treat. 2003 Jun;14(2):99-106
references: 12775317
references: Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2004 May;1(1):93-8
references: 25048069
references: Eur Respir J. 1999 Oct;14(4):800-5
references: 10573224
references: Eur J Cancer. 1995 Jul-Aug;31A(7-8):1160-5
references: 7577013
references: Cancer Res. 1988 Aug 15;48(16):4539-42
references: 2969280
references: Cancer Res. 2006 Nov 15;66(22):10953-8
references: 17108133
references: Arch Dermatol. 2004 Jan;140(1):41-6
references: 14732659
references: Gastrointest Endosc. 2005 Oct;62(4):488-98
references: 16185958
references: Transplantation. 2004 Jan 15;77(1):115-21
references: 14724445
references: Cancer Res. 1999 Mar 15;59(6):1180-3
references: 10096543
references: Genes Dev. 2006 Jan 1;20(1):1-15
references: 16391229
references: Lancet. 1993 Jul 17;342(8864):147-8
references: 7687318
references: Ann Surg Oncol. 1997 Dec;4(8):628-33
references: 9416409
references: J Photochem Photobiol B. 1991 Apr;9(1):117-9
references: 1907642
references: J Drug Target. 2007 Aug-Sep;15(7-8):496-506
references: 17671896
references: Cancer Res. 1997 Jul 1;57(13):2555-8
references: 9205052
references: Semin Radiat Oncol. 2010 Jul;20(3):208-14
references: 20685584
references: Mol Pharm. 2009 Jan-Feb;6(1):255-64
references: 19125612
references: Oncogene. 2001 Jun 7;20(26):3420-7
references: 11423992
references: Chest. 1990 Jul;98(1):97-100
references: 1694475
references: Arch Otolaryngol. 1985 Nov;111(11):758-61
references: 2413834
references: Cancer Res. 1996 Dec 15;56(24):5647-52
references: 8971170
references: J Biol Chem. 2003 Jan 3;278(1):407-14
references: 12409296
references: Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007 Jun;19(6):479-85
references: 17489058
references: Cancer Res. 2007 May 15;67(10):4989-95
references: 17510430
references: Int J Radiat Biol. 1990 Jul;58(1):145-56
references: 1973432
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2008 Aug 1;14(15):4869-76
references: 18676760
references: J Urol. 2006 Apr;175(4):1201-7
references: 16515960
references: Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 1999 Jan;15(1):1-6
references: 10077365
references: J Clin Neurosci. 2005 May;12(4):389-98
references: 15925768
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2007 Jun;39(5):394-402
references: 17565719
references: Br J Neurosurg. 2000 Aug;14(4):317-25
references: 11045196
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2009 Jul-Aug;85(4):1020-7
references: 19320847
references: J Photochem Photobiol B. 1994 Apr;23(1):3-8
references: 8021748
references: Gut. 2004 Dec;53(12):1736-44
references: 15542506
references: J Urol. 1998 Jul;160(1):39-44
references: 9628601
references: Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2008 Jul;7(7):775-81
references: 18597024
references: Semin Surg Oncol. 1995 Sep-Oct;11(5):346-54
references: 7569556
references: Cancer Res. 2000 Aug 1;60(15):4066-9
references: 10945611
references: Cell Death Differ. 2002 Sep;9(9):934-44
references: 12181744
references: Photochem Photobiol. 1993 Jun;57(6):1000-6
references: 8367528
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2009 Oct;41(8):578-84
references: 19731298
references: J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2008 Nov;22(11):1302-11
references: 18624836
references: Gastrointest Endosc. 2007 Sep;66(3):460-8
references: 17643436
references: Lasers Med Sci. 2009 Mar;24(2):259-68
references: 18247081
references: J Photochem Photobiol B. 2009 Aug 3;96(2):83-92
references: 19467605
references: Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2002 Sep;1(9):690-5
references: 12665307
references: Mol Cancer Ther. 2008 Aug;7(8):2263-71
references: 18687658
references: J Am Acad Dermatol. 2003 Feb;48(2):227-32
references: 12582393
references: J Natl Cancer Inst. 1988 Jul 20;80(10):739-43
references: 3385781
references: Cancer Res. 2004 Apr 1;64(7):2328-32
references: 15059880
references: Br J Cancer. 2006 Aug 21;95(4):485-95
references: 16868543
references: Br J Dermatol. 2001 Apr;144(4):832-40
references: 11298545
references: Free Radic Biol Med. 2006 Mar 1;40(5):827-36
references: 16520235
references: Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 2008 Nov;5(11):1241-54
references: 18976134
references: Dermatol Clin. 2007 Jan;25(1):81-7
references: 17126745
references: Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2010 Nov;22(9):785-91
references: 20829005
references: Cancer Res. 2001 Jan 1;61(1):192-6
references: 11196160
references: Cancer. 1996 Oct 1;78(7):1374-83
references: 8839541
references: J Drugs Dermatol. 2003 Dec;2(6):629-35
references: 14711141
references: Gastroenterology. 1998 Mar;114(3):536-42
references: 9496944
references: Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2010 Jun;7(2):61-75
references: 20510301
references: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010 Jan 20;(1):CD004060
references: 20091557
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2010 Apr 1;16(7):2198-204
references: 20332318
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2008 Mar-Apr;84(2):366-70
references: 18208456
references: Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2009 Summer;21(2):177-87
references: 19822291
references: Int J Gastrointest Cancer. 2002;32(2-3):139-42
references: 12794250
references: Arch Dermatol. 2006 Jun;142(6):729-35
references: 16785375
references: Br J Cancer. 2007 Jun 18;96(12):1839-48
references: 17505510
references: J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005 Oct 19;97(20):1488-9
references: 16234556
references: Immunology. 2008 Aug;124(4):461-8
references: 18397271
references: Ann Thorac Surg. 2010 Jun;89(6):1744-8; discussion 1748-9
references: 20494021
references: Photochem Photobiol. 1996 Feb;63(2):229-37
references: 8657737
references: J Urol. 2002 Oct;168(4 Pt 1):1427-32
references: 12352410
references: Endoscopy. 1994 Feb;26(2):243-6
references: 8026374
references: J Neurosurg. 2000 Dec;93(6):1003-13
references: 11117842
references: Int J Oncol. 2004 Mar;24(3):711-7
references: 14767557
references: Lasers Med Sci. 2002;17(3):173-86
references: 12181632
references: Int J Cancer. 2004 Aug 10;111(1):138-46
references: 15185355
references: Urology. 1995 May;45(5):763-7
references: 7747371
references: J Am Acad Dermatol. 1993 Jan;28(1):17-21
references: 8318069
references: J Invest Dermatol. 2007 Apr;127(4):925-34
references: 17068479
references: Cancer Res. 1996 May 15;56(10):2355-60
references: 8625311
references: Br J Cancer. 2000 Oct;83(8):1110-7
references: 10993661
references: Cancer Lett. 1996 Dec 3;109(1-2):129-39
references: 9020912
references: Br J Dermatol. 2010 Feb 1;162(2):410-4
references: 19804593
references: J Clin Gastroenterol. 2005 Sep;39(8):653-64
references: 16082272
references: J Photochem Photobiol B. 1990 Jun;6(1-2):143-8
references: 2121931
references: Gastroenterology. 2003 Nov;125(5):1355-63
references: 14598251
references: Chest. 2001 Oct;120(4):1167-74
references: 11591556
references: Br J Cancer. 1995 Mar;71(3):549-55
references: 7880738
references: Gastrointest Endosc. 2003 Feb;57(2):266-9
references: 12556802
references: Clin Cancer Res. 1996 Apr;2(4):641-52
references: 9816214
references: Gut. 1995 Jun;36(6):853-6
references: 7615273
references: Br J Neurosurg. 1988;2(2):241-8
references: 2855780
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2004 Jan;79(1):94-8
references: 14982037
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2006 Feb 1;12(3 Pt 1):917-23
references: 16467106
references: Methods Mol Biol. 2010;635:261-80
references: 20552352
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2002 Nov;76(5):509-13
references: 12462645
references: J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007 Jan;56(1):125-43
references: 17190630
references: Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2002 Nov;1(11):837-40
references: 12659521
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2006 Jun;38(5):489-93
references: 16615136
references: J Am Chem Soc. 2004 Sep 22;126(37):11450-1
references: 15366886
references: Urology. 2003 Feb;61(2):332-7
references: 12597941
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2006 Jun;38(5):384-9
references: 16788926
references: Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2010 Mar;7(1):50-8
references: 20230994
references: BJU Int. 2005 Jun;95(9):1206-10
references: 15892802
references: Health Technol Assess. 2010 Jul;14(37):1-288
references: 20663420
references: J Photochem Photobiol B. 1996 Nov;36(2):153-6
references: 9002252
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2006 Jun;38(5):349-55
references: 16788923
references: Br J Cancer. 1998 Nov;78(10):1278-82
references: 9823966
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2006 Jun;38(5):356-63
references: 16392142
references: Chest. 1982 Mar;81(3):269-77
references: 6276108
references: Curr Treat Options Oncol. 2001 Oct;2(5):375-83
references: 12057100
references: J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 2008;27(1):35-42
references: 18551894
references: N Engl J Med. 1987 Nov 12;317(20):1251-5
references: 2959863
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2007 Apr 15;13(8):2463-70
references: 17438106
references: J Clin Oncol. 2004 Jun 1;22(11):2192-201
references: 15169808
references: J Neurosurg. 1987 Oct;67(4):500-5
references: 3655887
references: J Am Acad Dermatol. 2002 Aug;47(2):258-62
references: 12140473
references: Br J Cancer. 1994 Mar;69(3):605-8
references: 8123497
references: Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2004 Nov 15;20(10):1125-31
references: 15569115
references: Gut. 2002 Apr;50(4):549-57
references: 11889078
references: Photochem Photobiol. 1988 Nov;48(5):675-81
references: 2977226
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2006 Sep 15;12(18):5464-70
references: 17000681
references: Cancer Res. 1978 Aug;38(8):2628-35
references: 667856
references: Lancet Oncol. 2007 Oct;8(10):950-2
references: 17913664
references: Biochim Biophys Acta. 2010 Jan;1805(1):53-71
references: 19720113
references: Br J Surg. 1995 Feb;82(2):178-81
references: 7749681
references: Photochem Photobiol. 1999 Jul;70(1):64-71
references: 10420844
references: Cancer Res. 2003 Dec 1;63(23):8126-31
references: 14678965
references: J Urol. 1976 Feb;115(2):150-1
references: 1249866
references: Photochem Photobiol. 1993 Feb;57(2):371-5
references: 8451300
references: Photochem Photobiol. 1996 Aug;64(2):375-81
references: 8760577
references: Br J Dermatol. 1996 Nov;135(5):766-71
references: 8977678
references: Br J Dermatol. 2008 Sep;159(4):864-70
references: 18717680
references: Br J Cancer. 1996 Sep;74(5):688-97
references: 8795569
references: J Photochem Photobiol B. 2010 Dec 2;101(3):185-90
references: 20732819
references: Aktuelle Urol. 2009 Mar;40(2):91-9
references: 19214951
references: Cancer Res. 1986 May;46(5):2532-40
references: 3697992
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2002 Jul;76(1):98-104
references: 12126313
references: Int J Cancer. 1994 Dec 15;59(6):814-22
references: 7989124
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2008 Oct;40(8):535-42
references: 18798293
references: Curr Mol Med. 2008 May;8(3):207-20
references: 18473820
references: Cancer Res. 2000 Dec 15;60(24):6985-8
references: 11156400
references: Hepatogastroenterology. 2001 Nov-Dec;48(42):1599-603
references: 11813582
references: Br J Cancer. 1987 Jul;56(1):27-32
references: 2956984
references: Autophagy. 2010 Oct;6(7):838-54
references: 20505317
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2009 Jul 1;15(13):4460-6
references: 19549769
references: Photochem Photobiol. 2008 Jan-Feb;84(1):128-37
references: 18173712
references: Cancer Res. 2003 Mar 1;63(5):1025-33
references: 12615718
references: Clin Cancer Res. 2002 May;8(5):1265-70
references: 12006547
references: Cancer Res. 2007 Nov 1;67(21):10501-10
references: 17974994
references: Photochem Photobiol. 1989 Mar;49(3):299-304
references: 2525260
references: Phys Med Biol. 2008 May 7;53(9):R61-109
references: 18401068
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 May 22;104(21):8989-94
references: 17502620
references: Ann Surg Oncol. 2001 Jan-Feb;8(1):65-71
references: 11206227
references: Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000 May 1;47(2):419-24
references: 10802369
references: J Am Acad Dermatol. 1999 Sep;41(3 Pt 1):414-8
references: 10459115
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2006 Jun;38(5):364-70
references: 16788932
references: Arch Dermatol. 2007 Sep;143(9):1131-6
references: 17875873
references: Lasers Surg Med. 2006 Jun;38(5):427-34
references: 16788929
references: Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2008 Dec 14;60(15):1627-37
references: 18930086