title: The relationship between substrate metabolism, exercise and appetite control: does glycogen availability influence the motivation to eat, energy intake or food choice?
abstract: The way in which metabolic fuels are utilized can alter the expression of behaviour in the interests of regulating energy balance and fuel availability. This is consistent with the notion that the regulation of appetite is a psychobiological process, in which physiological mediators act as drivers of behaviour. The glycogenostatic theory suggests that glycogen availability is central in eliciting negative feedback signals to restore energy homeostasis. Due to its limited storage capacity, carbohydrate availability is tightly regulated and its restoration is a high metabolic priority following depletion. It has been proposed that such depletion may act as a biological cue to stimulate compensatory energy intake in an effort to restore availability. Due to the increased energy demand, aerobic exercise may act as a biological cue to trigger compensatory eating as a result of perturbations to muscle and liver glycogen stores. However, studies manipulating glycogen availability over short-term periods (1-3 days) using exercise, diet or both have often produced equivocal findings. There is limited but growing evidence to suggest that carbohydrate balance is involved in the short-term regulation of food intake, with a negative carbohydrate balance having been shown to predict greater ad libitum feeding. Furthermore, a negative carbohydrate balance has been shown to be predictive of weight gain. However, further research is needed to support these findings as the current research in this area is limited. In addition, the specific neural or hormonal signal through which carbohydrate availability could regulate energy intake is at present unknown. Identification of this signal or pathway is imperative if a casual relationship is to be established. Without this, the possibility remains that the associations found between carbohydrate balance and food intake are incidental.
authors: BioPsychology Group, Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK. m.hopkins@leedstrinity.ac.uk
authors: Mark
authors: M
authors: Hopkins
authors: Asker
authors: A
authors: Jeukendrup
authors: Neil A
authors: NA
authors: King
authors: John E
authors: JE
authors: Blundell
references: Br J Nutr. 2009 Jun;101(12):1867-77
references: 19079943
references: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007 Jun;15(6):1373-83
references: 17557973
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 1993 Jan;57(1):35-42
references: 8416662
references: J Clin Invest. 2005 Jul;115(7):1699-702
references: 16007246
references: Int J Obes (Lond). 2007 Aug;31(8):1277-85
references: 17342074
references: Physiol Behav. 2008 Aug 6;94(5):681-8
references: 18514237
references: J Biol Chem. 2004 Mar 26;279(13):12005-8
references: 14742438
references: Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2008 Feb;18(1):79-95
references: 18272935
references: Arch Intern Med. 2003 Jun 9;163(11):1343-50
references: 12796071
references: Ann Nutr Metab. 2004;48(3):189-92
references: 15249759
references: Cell Mol Life Sci. 2010 Oct;67(19):3255-73
references: 20549539
references: J Appl Physiol (1985). 2005 Jul;99(1):349-56
references: 15591292
references: Obes Rev. 2009 Nov;10(6):671-80
references: 19538438
references: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2008 May;16(5):1025-32
references: 18309299
references: Br J Nutr. 2010 Oct;104(8):1249-59
references: 20565997
references: Am J Physiol. 1990 Nov;259(5 Pt 1):E650-7
references: 2240203
references: Appetite. 1997 Dec;29(3):291-304
references: 9468762
references: Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2000 Jan;278(1):E65-75
references: 10644538
references: Eur J Appl Physiol. 2006 Nov;98(5):497-506
references: 17006714
references: J Appl Physiol (1985). 1990 Jan;68(1):302-8
references: 2179207
references: J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010 Apr;95(4):1609-16
references: 20150577
references: Diabetes. 2000 Aug;49(8):1281-7
references: 10923626
references: J Physiol. 2006 Jul 1;574(Pt 1):73-83
references: 16709629
references: Physiol Behav. 2005 Dec 15;86(5):623-32
references: 16263145
references: Am J Physiol. 1998 Jan;274(1):E155-61
references: 9458761
references: Int J Obes (Lond). 2008 Dec;32 Suppl 7:S109-19
references: 19136979
references: J Physiol. 2001 Oct 1;536(Pt 1):295-304
references: 11579177
references: Metabolism. 2009 Sep;58(9):1320-8
references: 19501861
references: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009 Feb;41(2):364-74
references: 19151592
references: J Appl Physiol (1985). 2005 Jan;98(1):160-7
references: 15333616
references: Am J Physiol. 1994 Apr;266(4 Pt 1):E592-9
references: 8178980
references: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999 Dec;23(12):1282-7
references: 10643685
references: Br J Nutr. 2002 May;87(5):517-23
references: 12010590
references: J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998 Aug;83(8):2758-64
references: 9709943
references: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1998 Aug;22 Suppl 2:S22-9
references: 9778093
references: Eur J Clin Nutr. 1994 Oct;48(10):715-24
references: 7835326
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Sep;86(3):625-32
references: 17823426
references: Nature. 2004 Apr 1;428(6982):569-74
references: 15058305
references: Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2009 Apr;37(2):93-101
references: 19305201
references: Br J Sports Med. 2009 Dec;43(12):924-7
references: 19793728
references: PLoS One. 2009;4(2):e4515
references: 19223984
references: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1997 Sep;21(9):811-7
references: 9376895
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 1987 Jan;45(1 Suppl):296-306
references: 3799520
references: Am J Physiol. 1999 Dec;277(6):E1130-41
references: 10600804
references: Am J Physiol. 1986 Jun;250(6 Pt 2):R1003-6
references: 3717372
references: Eur J Clin Nutr. 1997 Jul;51(7):478-83
references: 9234032
references: Am J Physiol. 1998 Nov;275(5):E853-63
references: 9815006
references: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997 Aug;29(8):1076-89
references: 9268966
references: Obes Rev. 2005 Feb;6(1):43-65
references: 15655038
references: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1987;499:104-23
references: 3300476
references: Obes Rev. 2010 Mar;11(3):202-21
references: 19744231
references: Physiol Behav. 2009 Apr 20;97(1):62-7
references: 19419671
references: Biochem J. 2009 Mar 1;418(2):261-75
references: 19196246
references: Nutrition. 2004 Jul-Aug;20(7-8):716-27
references: 15212756
references: Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2006 Jun;16(3):209-14
references: 16643200
references: Nutr Rev. 2007 Jan;65(1):1-19
references: 17310855
references: J Clin Invest. 2005 Jul;115(7):1934-41
references: 16007256
references: Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2009 Feb;296(2):R233-42
references: 19073905
references: J Neuroendocrinol. 2008 Jul;20(7):942-51
references: 18445126
references: Br J Nutr. 2007 Oct;98(4):834-42
references: 17532862
references: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1996 Mar;20 Suppl 2:S1-11
references: 8646265
references: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1992 Sep;16(9):667-74
references: 1328091
references: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1998 Jun;22(6):601-3
references: 9665683
references: J Physiol. 2003 May 1;548(Pt 3):919-27
references: 12651914
references: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006 Jul;14 Suppl 4:160S-163S
references: 16931499
references: Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Dec;16(4):667-78
references: 12468414
references: Br J Nutr. 1997 Apr;77(4):511-21
references: 9155502
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Oct;90(4):921-7
references: 19675105
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 1997 Apr;65(4):941-6
references: 9094876
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 2006 Apr;83(4):803-8
references: 16600931
references: Front Neuroendocrinol. 2010 Jan;31(1):4-15
references: 19729032
references: Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2006 Jun;31(3):302-12
references: 16770359
references: Eur J Clin Nutr. 1995 Feb;49(2):114-23
references: 7743984
references: Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2008 Apr;294(4):R1111-6
references: 18256136
references: Physiol Behav. 2004 Dec 30;83(4):645-51
references: 15621070
references: Int J Obes (Lond). 2010 May;34(5):871-7
references: 20157319
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 1989 May;49(5):799-805
references: 2718915
references: Metabolism. 1978 Dec;27(12 Suppl 2):1853-65
references: 723637
references: Int J Obes (Lond). 2010 May;34(5):886-91
references: 20195283
references: Curr Opin Lipidol. 2009 Feb;20(1):45-9
references: 19133411
references: Eur J Clin Nutr. 1996 Oct;50(10):663-7
references: 8909932
references: Appetite. 2009 Oct;53(2):272-3; author reply 274-6
references: 19540287
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Jun;87(6):1686-94
references: 18541557
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 1994 Oct;60(4):534-43
references: 8092088
references: Appetite. 2008 Nov;51(3):446-51
references: 18656507
references: J Physiol. 2007 Nov 1;584(Pt 3):963-81
references: 17855762
references: Int J Obes (Lond). 2008 Mar;32(3):481-9
references: 17998903
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 1993 Jun;57(6):897-903
references: 8503359
references: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2008 Dec;16 Suppl 3:S11-22
references: 19190620
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 1990 Aug;52(2):240-5
references: 2375289
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 1995 Aug;62(2):316-29
references: 7625338
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Nov;80(5):1230-6
references: 15531670
references: Int J Obes (Lond). 2008 Jan;32(1):177-84
references: 17848941
references: Appetite. 2007 Sep;49(2):388-98
references: 17524521
references: Physiol Behav. 1995 May;57(5):995-1000
references: 7610155
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Dec;88(6):1504-10
references: 19064509
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 1995 Nov;62(5 Suppl):1096S-1100S
references: 7484927
references: N Engl J Med. 1953 Jul 2;249(1):13-6
references: 13063674
references: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2007;31(7):987-1002
references: 17559933
references: Am J Physiol. 1993 Sep;265(3 Pt 1):E380-91
references: 8214047
references: Proc Nutr Soc. 2003 Aug;62(3):621-34
references: 14692598
references: Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Apr;284(4):E813-22
references: 12488245