title: Molecular phylogenetics of suborder Cactineae (Caryophyllales), including insights into photosynthetic diversification and historical biogeography.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Phylogenetic relationships were investigated among the eight families (Anacampserotaceae, Basellaceae, Cactaceae, Didiereaceae, Halophytaceae, Montiaceae, Portulacaceae, Talinaceae) that form suborder Cactineae (= Portulacineae) of the Caryophyllales. In addition, photosynthesis diversification and historical biogeography were addressed. •
  
  
  METHODS
  Chloroplast DNA sequences, mostly noncoding, were used to estimate the phylogeny. Divergence times were calibrated using two Hawaiian Portulaca species, due to the lack of an unequivocal fossil record for Cactineae. Photosynthetic pathways were determined from carbon isotope ratios (δ(13)C) and leaf anatomy. •
  
  
  RESULTS
  Maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses were consistent with previous studies in that the suborder, almost all families, and the ACPT clade (Anacampserotaceae, Cactaceae, Portulacaceae, Talinaceae) were strongly supported as monophyletic; however, relationships among families remain uncertain. The age of Cactineae was estimated to be 18.8 Myr. Leaf anatomy and δ(13)C and were congruent in most cases, and inconsistencies between these pointed to photosynthetic intermediates. Reconstruction of photosynthesis diversification showed C(3) to be the ancestral pathway, a shift to C(4) in Portulacaceae, and five independent origins of Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). Cactineae were inferred to have originated in the New World. •
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Although the C(3) pathway is inferred as the ancestral state in Cactineae, some CAM activity has been reported in the literature in almost every family of the suborder, leaving open the possibility that CAM may have one origin in the group. Incongruence among loci could be due to internal short branches, which possibly represent rapid radiations in response to increasing aridity in the Miocene.
authors: Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden and Claremont Graduate University, 1500 North College Avenue, Claremont, California 91711-3157 USA.
authors: Gilberto
authors: G
authors: Ocampo
authors: J Travis
authors: JT
authors: Columbus