title: Diversity and dialogue in immunity to helminths.
abstract: The vertebrate immune system has evolved in concert with a broad range of infectious agents, including ubiquitous helminth (worm) parasites. The constant pressure of helminth infections has been a powerful force in shaping not only how immunity is initiated and maintained, but also how the body self-regulates and controls untoward immune responses to minimize overall harm. In this Review, we discuss recent advances in defining the immune cell types and molecules that are mobilized in response to helminth infection. Finally, we more broadly consider how these immunological players are blended and regulated in order to accommodate persistent infection or to mount a vigorous protective response and achieve sterile immunity.
authors: Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, Ashworth Laboratories, University of Edinburgh, UK.
authors: Judith E
authors: JE
authors: Allen
authors: Rick M
authors: RM
authors: Maizels
references: PLoS Pathog. 2011 May;7(5):e1002003
references: 21589896
references: Eur J Immunol. 2003 Sep;33(9):2382-90
references: 12938214
references: BMC Biol. 2009 Apr 22;7:16
references: 19386086
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Jun 24;100(13):7761-6
references: 12796512
references: J Immunol. 2004 Feb 15;172(4):2439-45
references: 14764715
references: J Exp Med. 2004 Aug 16;200(4):507-17
references: 15314076
references: J Clin Invest. 2009 Apr;119(4):1019-28
references: 19258704
references: Nat Immunol. 2008 Dec;9(12):1341-6
references: 18931678
references: Eur J Immunol. 2010 Jun;40(6):1525-37
references: 20405478
references: J Immunol. 2010 May 1;184(9):5375-82
references: 20357251
references: J Exp Med. 2009 Apr 13;206(4):937-52
references: 19349464
references: J Immunol. 2005 Apr 15;174(8):4924-33
references: 15814720
references: J Immunol. 2001 Dec 1;167(11):6533-44
references: 11714822
references: Int Immunol. 2000 Jun;12(6):899-908
references: 10837417
references: Nature. 2010 Apr 29;464(7293):1367-70
references: 20200518
references: J Immunol. 2009 Feb 1;182(3):1577-83
references: 19155506
references: J Immunol. 2009 Mar 1;182(5):3084-94
references: 19234205
references: Eur J Immunol. 2007 Dec;37(12):3319-26
references: 18000958
references: J Infect Dis. 2008 Apr 15;197(8):1204-12
references: 18462167
references: PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2009;3(4):e420
references: 19381284
references: Blood. 1997 May 15;89(10):3826-36
references: 9160690
references: J Infect Dis. 2009 Jun 15;199(12):1827-37
references: 19456233
references: J Exp Med. 2009 Aug 3;206(8):1673-80
references: 19635864
references: J Immunol. 1989 Dec 15;143(12):4208-12
references: 2592772
references: J Immunol. 2004 Nov 15;173(10):6346-56
references: 15528374
references: Nat Rev Immunol. 2007 Dec;7(12):975-87
references: 18007680
references: Trends Immunol. 2011 Mar;32(3):125-30
references: 21168364
references: J Exp Med. 2009 Jun 8;206(6):1395-408
references: 19468064
references: Adv Parasitol. 2002;52:265-307
references: 12521263
references: Int J Parasitol. 1992 Nov;22(7):861-907
references: 1459783
references: J Biol Chem. 2002 Dec 13;277(50):48122-9
references: 12359728
references: J Exp Med. 2010 Oct 25;207(11):2331-41
references: 20876311
references: J Exp Med. 2005 Sep 5;202(5):607-16
references: 16129701
references: J Immunol. 2004 Jul 15;173(2):1240-8
references: 15240716
references: J Exp Med. 2008 Jan 21;205(1):13-7
references: 18195077
references: Immunity. 2009 Jul 17;31(1):84-98
references: 19559631
references: Science. 2004 Sep 17;305(5691):1776-9
references: 15375268
references: Science. 2010 Oct 8;330(6001):243-6
references: 20929776
references: Q Rev Biol. 1991 Mar;66(1):23-62
references: 2052671
references: J Leukoc Biol. 2009 Feb;85(2):268-77
references: 19008294
references: Nature. 2010 Apr 29;464(7293):1362-6
references: 20200520
references: Immunity. 2010 Sep 24;33(3):364-74
references: 20817571
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 May 16;103(20):7777-82
references: 16682645
references: Eur J Immunol. 2009 Jan;39(1):192-206
references: 19089814
references: Nat Rev Immunol. 2010 Apr;10(4):225-35
references: 20336151
references: Blood. 2005 Mar 15;105(6):2549-56
references: 15546957
references: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1997 May;56(5):515-21
references: 9180601
references: Ann Neurol. 2008 Aug;64(2):187-99
references: 18655096
references: J Exp Med. 2010 Sep 27;207(10):2089-96
references: 20819926
references: Parasite Immunol. 2000 Jan;22(1):13-20
references: 10607286
references: Adv Immunol. 2010;108:21-44
references: 21056728
references: Nat Rev Immunol. 2003 Sep;3(9):733-44
references: 12949497
references: Nat Med. 2006 Aug;12(8):955-60
references: 16892038
references: Nat Rev Immunol. 2009 Dec;9(12):883-9
references: 19935807
references: Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2002 Feb;282(2):G226-32
references: 11804843
references: Mol Immunol. 2007 Apr;44(10):2605-15
references: 17241663
references: Int Immunol. 2006 Oct;18(10):1421-31
references: 16940042
references: J Immunol. 2007 Sep 15;179(6):3926-36
references: 17785830
references: J Immunol. 1996 Oct 1;157(7):3046-53
references: 8816414
references: J Immunol. 1999 Jul 15;163(2):927-38
references: 10395689
references: J Leukoc Biol. 2010 Jul;88(1):159-68
references: 20360403
references: Infect Immun. 2004 Feb;72(2):810-7
references: 14742524
references: J Biomed Biotechnol. 2010;2010:262609
references: 20145705
references: Am J Pathol. 2004 Apr;164(4):1315-26
references: 15039219
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Nov 23;107(47):20459-64
references: 21059925
references: Eur J Immunol. 2007 Jul;37(7):1874-86
references: 17563918
references: Springer Semin Immunopathol. 1990;12(4):349-63
references: 2151404
references: J Immunol. 1988 May 1;140(9):3206-11
references: 2966208
references: J Leukoc Biol. 2002 Jul;72(1):72-82
references: 12101265
references: Infect Immun. 2005 Jan;73(1):385-94
references: 15618176
references: Nat Rev Immunol. 2003 Jan;3(1):23-35
references: 12511873
references: J Exp Med. 2009 May 11;206(5):991-9
references: 19380637
references: J Immunol. 2010 Dec 15;185(12):7426-34
references: 21057084
references: Eur J Immunol. 2010 Jun;40(6):1682-96
references: 20306466
references: J Exp Med. 2006 Jun 12;203(6):1435-46
references: 16702603
references: J Exp Med. 2009 Mar 16;206(3):655-67
references: 19273626
references: J Immunol. 2009 May 1;182(9):5393-9
references: 19380786
references: Blood. 2010 Oct 28;116(17):3311-20
references: 20625006
references: Int J Parasitol. 2007 Apr;37(5):457-64
references: 17313951
references: Immunol Rev. 2004 Oct;201:180-90
references: 15361241
references: J Immunol. 2006 Sep 15;177(6):3520-4
references: 16951310
references: J Leukoc Biol. 2007 Apr;81(4):1120-6
references: 17242370
references: Immunol Rev. 2008 Dec;226:172-90
references: 19161424
references: Immunol Cell Biol. 2010 Mar-Apr;88(3):250-6
references: 20065995
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Jan 6;106(1):256-61
references: 19109436
references: J Immunol. 2006 Feb 15;176(4):2476-85
references: 16456008
references: Immunology. 1989 Aug;67(4):466-72
references: 2570035
references: Trends Immunol. 2010 Nov;31(11):407-13
references: 20951092
references: Curr Opin Immunol. 2007 Aug;19(4):448-53
references: 17702561
references: J Immunol. 2010 Nov 1;185(9):5539-48
references: 20889544
references: PLoS Pathog. 2007 Jan;3(1):e1
references: 17222057
references: Science. 1994 Jun 24;264(5167):1876-7
references: 8009216
references: J Immunol. 1975 May;114(5):1437-41
references: 804513
references: Clin Exp Allergy. 2010 Apr;40(4):563-75
references: 20447076
references: PLoS Biol. 2006 Sep;4(9):e276
references: 16933971
references: J Biol. 2009;8(7):62
references: 19664200
references: Int J Parasitol. 2005 Nov;35(13):1349-58
references: 16126211
references: Infect Immun. 2008 May;76(5):1908-19
references: 18316386
references: Int J Parasitol. 2007 Oct;37(12):1367-78
references: 17555758
references: Immunity. 2001 Aug;15(2):303-11
references: 11520464
references: Infect Immun. 2006 Sep;74(9):4970-81
references: 16926388
references: Nature. 2010 Jan 28;463(7280):540-4
references: 20023630
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Sep 14;101(37):13596-600
references: 15340149
references: J Immunol. 2009 Feb 15;182(4):2340-8
references: 19201888
references: Ann Neurol. 2007 Feb;61(2):85-9
references: 17315205
references: Eur J Immunol. 1992 Jun;22(6):1483-94
references: 1601036
references: Eur J Immunol. 2007 Aug;37(8):2174-84
references: 17621370
references: Nat Rev Immunol. 2008 Nov;8(11):889-95
references: 18927577
references: BMC Genomics. 2008 Oct 23;9:498
references: 18945374
references: J Exp Med. 2011 May 9;208(5):893-900
references: 21502330
references: J Invest Dermatol. 2007 Mar;127(3):514-25
references: 17299434
references: Immunol Rev. 2004 Dec;202:191-202
references: 15546394
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Jun 22;107(25):11489-94
references: 20534524
references: Trends Parasitol. 2011 May;27(5):214-21
references: 21292555
references: PLoS Pathog. 2009 Apr;5(4):e1000393
references: 19381262
references: Immunity. 2009 May;30(5):646-55
references: 19464987
references: Immunity. 2009 Mar 20;30(3):421-33
references: 19249230
references: Immunol Rev. 2004 Oct;201:139-55
references: 15361238
references: Curr Opin Immunol. 2005 Dec;17(6):656-61
references: 16202576
references: J Immunol. 2008 Feb 15;180(4):2486-95
references: 18250458
references: Trends Parasitol. 2010 Aug;26(8):371-2
references: 20542734
references: Trends Immunol. 2011 Feb;32(2):80-8
references: 21159556
references: J Infect Dis. 1997 May;175(5):1276-80
references: 9129104
references: Science. 2005 Jun 3;308(5727):1463-5
references: 15933199
references: J Immunol. 2010 Dec 1;185(11):6921-9
references: 20974983
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Aug 18;106(33):13968-73
references: 19666528
references: PLoS Pathog. 2009 Apr;5(4):e1000371
references: 19360123
references: Eur J Immunol. 2000 Apr;30(4):1127-35
references: 10760802
references: Science. 2010 Jun 11;328(5984):1391-4
references: 20538949
references: Infect Immun. 2010 Sep;78(9):3753-62
references: 20605978
references: Infect Immun. 2010 Jul;78(7):3160-7
references: 20404082
references: Infect Immun. 2004 Jan;72(1):398-407
references: 14688121
references: Immunity. 1998 Feb;8(2):255-64
references: 9492006
references: J Infect Dis. 1998 May;177(5):1433-7
references: 9593042
references: J Immunol. 2007 Oct 1;179(7):4626-34
references: 17878360
references: J Immunol. 2005 Apr 15;174(8):4718-26
references: 15814696
references: Circ Res. 2003 May 30;92(10):1065-7
references: 12714564
references: J Exp Med. 2009 Aug 3;206(8):1681-90
references: 19635859
references: J Immunol. 2004 Feb 15;172(4):2016-20
references: 14764665
references: Eur J Immunol. 2009 Apr;39(4):1098-107
references: 19291704
references: Science. 2010 Oct 29;330(6004):662-5
references: 21030656
references: J Immunol. 1996 Nov 1;157(9):4068-78
references: 8892641
references: Nat Immunol. 2009 Jul;10(7):697-705
references: 19465906
references: Eur J Immunol. 2004 Nov;34(11):3047-59
references: 15468056
references: Nat Rev Immunol. 2007 Mar;7(3):220-30
references: 17318233
references: Springer Semin Immunopathol. 2004 Feb;25(3-4):271-9
references: 15007631
references: Cell. 2008 Jan 25;132(2):259-72
references: 18243101
references: J Immunol. 2010 Feb 1;184(3):1143-7
references: 20038645
references: Prog Lipid Res. 2006 Jul;45(4):334-56
references: 16678271
references: Cell Host Microbe. 2008 Oct 16;4(4):362-73
references: 18854240
references: J Exp Med. 1996 Nov 1;184(5):1871-8
references: 8920874
references: BMC Immunol. 2002 Jul 04;3:7
references: 12098359
references: J Immunol. 2009 Jul 15;183(2):1427-34
references: 19561109
references: J Exp Med. 2009 Dec 21;206(13):2947-57
references: 19995957
references: Eur J Immunol. 2007 Jul;37(7):1887-904
references: 17563917
references: Immunity. 2002 Mar;16(3):429-39
references: 11911827
references: J Immunol. 2008 Nov 1;181(9):6456-66
references: 18941236
references: Mol Biochem Parasitol. 2009 Sep;167(1):1-11
references: 19406170
references: J Exp Med. 2009 Aug 31;206(9):2037-51
references: 19703985
references: Infect Immun. 2006 Sep;74(9):5236-43
references: 16926417
references: J Immunol. 2011 Feb 15;186(4):2523-8
references: 21239713
references: PLoS Biol. 2010 Oct 19;8(10):e1000525
references: 20976099
references: Infect Immun. 2004 Aug;72(8):4552-60
references: 15271915
references: Nat Immunol. 2004 Nov;5(11):1157-65
references: 15475959
references: PLoS Pathog. 2010 Apr 29;6(4):e1000892
references: 20442785
references: J Immunol. 2002 Apr 1;168(7):3127-30
references: 11907061
references: Blood. 1991 Nov 15;78(10):2702-7
references: 1726708
references: J Immunol. 2002 Oct 1;169(7):3652-60
references: 12244157
references: Int J Parasitol. 2007 Mar;37(3-4):405-15
references: 17196594
references: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007 Oct;120(4):932-40
references: 17689595