title: The role of historical and contemporary processes on phylogeographic structure and genetic diversity in the Northern Cardinal, Cardinalis cardinalis.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Earth history events such as climate change are believed to have played a major role in shaping patterns of genetic structure and diversity in species. However, there is a lag between the time of historical events and the collection of present-day samples that are used to infer contemporary population structure. During this lag phase contemporary processes such as dispersal or non-random mating can erase or reinforce population differences generated by historical events. In this study we evaluate the role of both historical and contemporary processes on the phylogeography of a widespread North American songbird, the Northern Cardinal, Cardinalis cardinalis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Phylogenetic analysis revealed deep mtDNA structure with six lineages across the species' range. Ecological niche models supported the same geographic breaks revealed by the mtDNA. A paleoecological niche model for the Last Glacial Maximum indicated that cardinals underwent a dramatic range reduction in eastern North America, whereas their ranges were more stable in México. In eastern North America cardinals expanded out of glacial refugia, but we found no signature of decreased genetic diversity in areas colonized after the Last Glacial Maximum. Present-day demographic data suggested that population growth across the expansion cline is positively correlated with latitude. We propose that there was no loss of genetic diversity in areas colonized after the Last Glacial Maximum because recent high-levels of gene flow across the region have homogenized genetic diversity in eastern North America.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We show that both deep historical events as well as demographic processes that occurred following these events are critical in shaping genetic pattern and diversity in C. cardinalis. The general implication of our results is that patterns of genetic diversity are best understood when information on species history, ecology, and demography are considered simultaneously.
authors: School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA. btsmith@unlv.nevada.edu
authors: Brian Tilston
authors: BT
authors: Smith
authors: Patricia
authors: P
authors: Escalante
authors: Blanca E
authors: BE
authors: Hernández Baños
authors: Adolfo G
authors: AG
authors: Navarro-Sigüenza
authors: Sievert
authors: S
authors: Rohwer
authors: John
authors: J
authors: Klicka
references: Evolution. 1993 Feb;47(1):264-279
references: 28568097
references: Evolution. 2009 Jun;63(6):1593-605
references: 19187247
references: Nature. 2000 Jun 22;405(6789):907-13
references: 10879524
references: Mol Ecol. 2008 May;17(9):2107-21
references: 18397219
references: Evolution. 1996 Feb;50(1):308-317
references: 28568862
references: Mol Ecol. 1998 Oct;7(10):1303-13
references: 9787442
references: Proc Biol Sci. 2010 Oct 22;277(1697):3071-7
references: 20519219
references: Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2000 Nov;17(2):145-60
references: 11083930
references: Mol Biol Evol. 2007 Aug;24(8):1596-9
references: 17488738
references: Science. 2006 Apr 28;312(5773):570-2
references: 16645093
references: Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2007 Dec;45(3):1014-32
references: 17920298
references: Mol Phylogenet Evol. 1996 Apr;5(2):368-82
references: 8728395
references: Mol Ecol. 2006 Dec;15(14):4261-93
references: 17107465
references: Bioinformatics. 2009 Jun 1;25(11):1451-2
references: 19346325
references: Am Nat. 2005 Nov;166(5):581-91
references: 16224723
references: Mol Biol Evol. 2005 Jul;22(7):1561-8
references: 15814826
references: Heredity (Edinb). 2007 Oct;99(4):389-96
references: 17551522
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Dec 19;97(26):14438-43
references: 11095731
references: Mol Ecol. 2006 Mar;15(3):795-808
references: 16499703
references: Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Dec 22;273(1605):3057-63
references: 17015345
references: Syst Biol. 2011 Mar;60(2):150-60
references: 21187451
references: Syst Biol. 2010 Mar;59(2):145-61
references: 20525627
references: Proc Biol Sci. 2000 May 22;267(1447):1033-40
references: 10874754
references: Evolution. 2008 Jun;62(6):1484-99
references: 18363866
references: Can J Zool. 1971 Feb;49(2):185-98
references: 5101970
references: Evol Bioinform Online. 2007 Feb 23;1:47-50
references: 19325852
references: BMC Evol Biol. 2007 Nov 08;7:214
references: 17996036
references: Mol Biol Evol. 2001 Jun;18(6):1001-13
references: 11371589
references: Syst Biol. 2007 Jun;56(3):504-14
references: 17562474
references: Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2010 Apr;55(1):259-273
references: 19874904
references: Syst Biol. 2006 Apr;55(2):195-207
references: 16522570
references: Am Nat. 2009 Sep;174(3):358-68
references: 19627230
references: Mol Biol Evol. 2009 Nov;26(11):2595-603
references: 19661199
references: Proc Biol Sci. 2005 Nov 7;272(1578):2277-82
references: 16191640
references: Bioinformatics. 2003 Aug 12;19(12):1572-4
references: 12912839
references: Mol Phylogenet Evol. 2010 Nov;57(2):658-68
references: 20601011
references: Mol Ecol. 2007 Jan;16(1):159-73
references: 17181728