title: Oblique incidence effects in direct x-ray detectors: a first-order approximation using a physics-based analytical model.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The authors describe the modifications to a previously developed analytical model of indirect CsI:Tl-based detector response required for studying oblique x-ray incidence effects in direct semiconductor-based detectors. This first-order approximation analysis allows the authors to describe the associated degradation in resolution in direct detectors and compare the predictions to the published data for indirect detectors.
  
  
  METHODS
  The proposed model is based on a physics-based analytical description developed by Freed et al. ["A fast, angle-dependent, analytical model of CsI detector response for optimization of 3D x-ray breast imaging systems," Med. Phys. 37(6), 2593-2605 (2010)] that describes detector response functions for indirect detectors and oblique incident x rays. The model, modified in this work to address direct detector response, describes the dependence of the response with x-ray energy, thickness of the transducer layer, and the depth-dependent blur and collection efficiency.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The authors report the detector response functions for indirect and direct detector models for typical thicknesses utilized in clinical systems for full-field digital mammography (150 microm for indirect CsI:Tl and 200 microm for a-Se direct detectors). The results suggest that the oblique incidence effect in a semiconductor detector differs from that in indirect detectors in two ways: The direct detector model produces a sharper overall PRF compared to the response corresponding to the indirect detector model for normal x-ray incidence and a larger relative increase in blur along the x-ray incidence direction compared to that found in indirect detectors with respect to the response at normal incidence angles.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Compared to the effect seen in indirect detectors, the direct detector model exhibits a sharper response at normal x-ray incidence and a larger relative increase in blur along the x-ray incidence direction with respect to the blur in the orthogonal direction. The results suggest that the oblique incidence effect in direct detectors can be considered to be caused mostly by the geometry of the path where the x-ray beam and its secondary particles deposit energy in the semiconductor layer.
authors.affiliation: Division of Imaging and Applied Mathematics, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, FDA, Silver Spring, Maryland 20993, USA. aldo.badano@fda.hhs.gov
authors.forename: Aldo
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Badano
authors.forename: Melanie
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Freed
authors.forename: Yuan
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Fang
mesh_terms: D016880:Anisotropy; D016477:Artifacts; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D055585:Physical Phenomena; D012666:Semiconductors / Q000295:instrumentation*; D014965:X-Rays