title: Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) in Rattus norvegicus and Rattus rattus at livestock farms and urban locations in the Netherlands; could Rattus spp. represent reservoirs for (re)introduction?
abstract: The Q fever outbreak in the Netherlands in 2007-2010 prompted government interventions to reduce the human incidence by reduction of Q fever shedding at dairy goat farms. Mandatory hygiene measures were taken, including the control of animal reservoirs. It has been postulated that brown rats, through their commensal nature, form an important factor in the persistent dissemination of endemic circulating Coxiella burnetii in nature to domestic animals, livestock and humans. Here, the occurrence of C. burnetii in rats captured at different types of location during the Q fever outbreak in the Netherlands, viz. urban areas, nature areas and various types of farm has been determined. This is a first step towards the elucidation of the reservoir status of rats in veterinary and human Q fever epidemiology. C. burnetii DNA was detected in the spleen of 4.9% of the brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) and 3.0% of the black rats (Rattus rattus). Evidence for C. burnetii infection was also found in liver, kidney, lung and intestinal tissue but not in heart, brain and pancreas. C. burnetii IgGs were detected in 15.8% of the brown rats. Positive rats were collected at goat, pig, cattle and poultry farms, and urban locations; including locations outside the designated 5km "increased-risk" zones around bulk milk positive goat farms. The percentage of rat-positive locations was the highest for goat farms (50%) and cattle farms (14.3%). The presence of actively infected rats outside the lambing season and at multiple environmental settings including urban locations might suggest that rats are not merely a spill-over host due to infection by a contaminated environment but might represent true reservoirs, capable of independent maintenance of C. burnetii infection cycles and thereby contributing to spread and transmission of the pathogen. If frequent (re)introduction of C. burnetii to small ruminant farms can be caused by rats as maintenance reservoirs, mandatory wildlife control and lifelong vaccination of herds will be necessary.
authors.affiliation: Netherlands Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands. Chantal.Reusken@rivm.nl
authors.forename: Chantal
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Reusken
authors.forename: Rozemarijn
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: van der Plaats
authors.forename: Marieke
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Opsteegh
authors.forename: Arnout
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: de Bruin
authors.forename: Arno
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Swart
mesh_terms: D000822:Animal Husbandry; D000818:Animals; D016997:Coxiella burnetii / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D004197:Disease Reservoirs / Q000662:veterinary* / Q000821:virology; D004797:Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay / Q000662:veterinary; D037901:Euthanasia, Animal; D058751:Livestock; D009426:Netherlands / Q000453:epidemiology; D011778:Q Fever / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000635:transmission / Q000662:veterinary*; D051381:Rats; D014505:Urban Population