title: A fourier tool for the analysis of coherent light scattering by bio-optical nanostructures.
abstract: The fundamental dichotomy between incoherent (phase independent) and coherent (phase dependent) light scattering provides the best criterion for a classification of biological structural color production mechanisms. Incoherent scattering includes Rayleigh, Tyndall, and Mie scattering. Coherent scattering encompasses interference, reinforcement, thin-film reflection, and diffraction. There are three main classes of coherently scattering nanostructures-laminar, crystal-like, and quasi-ordered. Laminar and crystal-like nanostructures commonly produce iridescence, which is absent or less conspicuous in quasi-ordered nanostructures. Laminar and crystal-like arrays have been analyzed with methods from thin-film optics and Bragg's Law, respectively, but no traditional methods were available for the analysis of color production by quasi-ordered arrays. We have developed a tool using two-dimensional (2D) Fourier analysis of transmission electron micrographs (TEMs) that analyzes the spatial variation in refractive index (available from the authors). This Fourier tool can examine whether light scatterers are spatially independent, and test whether light scattering can be characterized as predominantly incoherent or coherent. The tool also provides a coherent scattering prediction of the back scattering reflectance spectrum of a biological nanostructure. Our applications of the Fourier tool have falsified the century old hypothesis that the non-iridescent structural colors of avian feather barbs and skin are produced by incoherent Rayleigh or Tyndall scattering. 2D Fourier analysis of these quasi-ordered arrays in bird feathers and skin demonstrate that these non-iridescent colors are produced by coherent scattering. No other previous examples of biological structural color production by incoherent scattering have been tested critically with either analysis of scatterer spatial independence or spectrophotometry. The Fourier tool is applied here for the first time to coherent scattering by a laminar array from iridescent bird feather barbules (Nectarinia) to demonstrate the efficacy of the technique on thin films. Unlike previous physical methods, the Fourier tool provides a single method for the analysis of coherent scattering by a diversity of nanostructural classes. This advance will facilitate the study of the evolution of nanostructural classes from one another and the evolution of nanostructure itself. The article concludes with comments on the emerging role of photonics in research on biological structural colors, and the future directions in development of the tool.
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, and Natural History Museum, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045-7561.
authors.forename: Richard O
authors.initials: RO
authors.lastname: Prum
authors.forename: Rodolfo H
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Torres