title: A persisting secondhand smoke hazard in urban public places: results from fine particulate (PM2.5) air sampling.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess the need for additional smokefree settings, by measuring secondhand smoke (SHS) in a range of public places in an urban setting.
  
  
  METHODS
  Measurements were made in Wellington City during the 6-year period after the implementation of legislation that made indoor areas of restaurants and bars/pubs smokefree in December 2004, and up to 20 years after the 1990 legislation making most indoor workplaces smokefree. Fine particulate levels (PM2.5) were measured with a portable real-time airborne particle monitor. We collated data from our previously published work involving random sampling, purposeful sampling and convenience sampling of a wide range of settings (in 2006) and from additional sampling of selected indoor and outdoor areas (in 2007-2008 and 2010).
  
  
  RESULTS
  The "outdoor" smoking areas of hospitality venues had the highest particulate levels, with a mean value of 72 mcg/m3 (range of maximum values 51-284 mcg/m3) (n=20 sampling periods). These levels are likely to create health hazards for some workers and patrons (i.e., when considered in relation to the WHO air quality guidelines). National survey data also indicate that these venues are the ones where SHS exposure is most frequently reported by non-smokers. Areas inside bars that were adjacent to "outdoor" smoking areas also had high levels, with a mean of 54 mcg/m3 (range of maximum values: 18-239 mcg/m3, for n=13 measurements). In all other settings mean levels were lower (means: 2-22 mcg/m3). These other settings included inside traditional style pubs/sports bars (n=10), bars (n=18), restaurants (n=9), cafes (n=5), inside public buildings (n=15), inside transportation settings (n=15), and various outdoor street/park settings (n=22). During the data collection in all settings made smokefree by law, there was only one occasion of a person observed smoking.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results suggest that compliance in pubs/bars and restaurants has remained extremely high in this city in the nearly six years since implementation of the upgraded smokefree legislation. The results also highlight additional potential health gain from extending smokefree policies to reduce SHS exposure in the "outdoor" smoking areas of hospitality venues and to reduce SHS drift from these areas to indoor areas.
authors.affiliation: Department of Public Health, University of Otago Wellington, PO Box 7343 Wellington South, New Zealand. nick.wilson@otago.ac.nz
authors.forename: Nick
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Wilson
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Edwards
authors.forename: Rhys
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Parry
mesh_terms: D016902:Air Pollution, Indoor / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods; D015386:Hazardous Substances / Q000633:toxicity; D006801:Humans; D008452:Maximum Allowable Concentration; D009520:New Zealand; D052638:Particulate Matter / Q000032:analysis*; D011633:Public Facilities / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D012147:Restaurants / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence; D014028:Tobacco Smoke Pollution / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D014505:Urban Population; D017132:Workplace / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence
chemical_list: D015386:Hazardous Substances; D052638:Particulate Matter; D014028:Tobacco Smoke Pollution