title: Cocaine Exposure and Children's Self-Regulation: Indirect Association via Maternal Harshness.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This study examined the association between prenatal cocaine exposure and children's self-regulation at 3 years of child age. In addition to direct effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on children's self-regulation, we hypothesized there would be indirect associations between cocaine exposure and self-regulation via higher maternal harshness and poor autonomic regulation in infancy.
  
  
  METHODS
  The sample consisted of 216 mother-infant dyads recruited at delivery from local area hospitals (116 cocaine-exposed, 100 non-exposed). Infant autonomic regulation was measured at 7 months of age during an anger/frustration task, maternal harshness was coded from observations of mother-toddler interactions at 2 years of age, and children's self-regulation was measured at 3 years of age using several laboratory paradigms.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Contrary to hypotheses, there were no direct associations between maternal cocaine use during pregnancy and children's self-regulation. However, results from testing our conceptual model including the indirect effects via maternal harshness or infant parasympathetic regulation indicated that this model fit the data well, χ(2) (23) = 34.36, p > 0.05, Comparative Fit Index = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.05. Cocaine using mothers displayed higher intensity of harshness toward their toddlers during lab interactions across a variety of tasks at 2 years of age (β = 0.23, p < 0.05), and higher intensity of harshness at 2 years was predictive of lower self-regulation at 3 years (β = -0.36, p < 0.01). Maternal cocaine use was also predictive of a non-adaptive increase in respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) from baseline to the negative affect task, but RSA change in infancy was not predictive of self-regulation at 3 years.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  RESULTS are supportive of animal models indicating higher aggression among cocaine treated dams, and indicate that higher maternal harshness among cocaine using mothers is predictive of child self-regulatory outcomes in the preschool period.
authors.affiliation: Research Institute on Addictions, University at Buffalo, State University of New York Buffalo, NY, USA.
authors.forename: Rina D
authors.initials: RD
authors.lastname: Eiden
authors.forename: Pamela
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Schuetze
authors.forename: Yvette
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Veira
authors.forename: Elizabeth
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Cox
authors.forename: Thomas M
authors.initials: TM
authors.lastname: Jarrett
authors.forename: Josephine M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Johns