title: Anomalous capitulum structure and monoecy may confer flexibility in sex allocation and life history evolution in the Ifloga lineage of paper daisies (Compositae: Gnaphalieae).
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Evolutionary significance of the Compositae capitulum and variation in its structure is poorly understood, although it may permit flexibility in sexual expression. Optimal sex ratio differs with life-history and reproductive strategy. We explore how the genus Ifloga and related members of southern African Gnaphalieae achieved different sex ratios, and the associations of these ratios with annual and perennial life history.
  
  
  METHODS
  Sex allocation was measured using the male to female ratio (M/F), a novel approximator of the pollen to ovule ratio (P/O). Life-history (annuality/perenniality), capitulum structure, capitular sexual system, and M/F were reconstructed on time-proportional phylogenies. Trait associations were examined using phylogenetically independent contrasts (PICs).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Annual taxa have strongly female-biased capitula, as measured by M/F, and either gynomonoecious or monoecious sexual systems, while perennials have equal or male-biased capitula that are hermaphroditic or monoecious. These results are largely supported by PIC analysis. Different sexual systems afford differing flexibility in sex allocation, with hermaphrodites having the least, and monoecious taxa the greatest, range in M/F. Within Ifloga, the anomalous capitulum evolved in an annual, gynomonoecious ancestor, followed by two independent gains of monoecy. Two subsequent gains of perenniality occurred within a monoecious sublineage.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Different life histories have divergent sex allocation optima and are strongly associated with different sexual systems in gnaphalioid daisies. An anomalous capitulum structure in Ifloga may have facilitated the evolution of monoecy, which in turn may be linked to the evolution of life-history diversity in the genus.
authors.affiliation: The Compton Herbarium, Kirstenbosch Research Centre, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Private Bag X7, Newlands, Cape Town 7735, South Africa. n.bergh@sanbi.org.za
authors.forename: Nicola G
authors.initials: NG
authors.lastname: Bergh
authors.forename: G Anthony
authors.initials: GA
authors.lastname: Verboom
mesh_terms: D019659:Asteraceae / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology*; D017753:Ecosystem; D035264:Flowers / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000502:physiology*; D010802:Phylogeny; D019655:Quantitative Trait, Heritable; D012098:Reproduction / Q000502:physiology; D013045:Species Specificity