title: Resistance of a rodent malaria parasite to a thymidylate synthase inhibitor induces an apoptotic parasite death and imposes a huge cost of fitness.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The greatest impediment to effective malaria control is drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum, and thus understanding how resistance impacts on the parasite's fitness and pathogenicity may aid in malaria control strategy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  To generate resistance, P. berghei NK65 was subjected to 5-fluoroorotate (FOA, an inhibitor of thymidylate synthase, TS) pressure in mice. After 15 generations of drug pressure, the 2% DT (the delay time for proliferation of parasites to 2% parasitaemia, relative to untreated wild-type controls) reduced from 8 days to 4, equalling the controls. Drug sensitivity studies confirmed that FOA-resistance was stable. During serial passaging in the absence of drug, resistant parasite maintained low growth rates (parasitaemia, 15.5%±2.9, 7 dpi) relative to the wild-type (45.6%±8.4), translating into resistance cost of fitness of 66.0%. The resistant parasite showed an apoptosis-like death, as confirmed by light and transmission electron microscopy and corroborated by oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The resistant parasite was less fit than the wild-type, which implies that in the absence of drug pressure in the field, the wild-type alleles may expand and allow drugs withdrawn due to resistance to be reintroduced. FOA resistance led to depleted dTTP pools, causing thymineless parasite death via apoptosis. This supports the tenet that unicellular eukaryotes, like metazoans, also undergo apoptosis. This is the first report where resistance to a chemical stimulus and not the stimulus itself is shown to induce apoptosis in a unicellular parasite. This finding is relevant in cancer therapy, since thymineless cell death induced by resistance to TS-inhibitors can further be optimized via inhibition of pyrimidine salvage enzymes, thus providing a synergistic impact. We conclude that since apoptosis is a process that can be pharmacologically modulated, the parasite's apoptotic machinery may be exploited as a novel drug target in malaria and other protozoan diseases of medical importance.
authors.affiliation: Department of Infectious Diseases, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan. fmuregi@kemri.org
authors.forename: Francis W
authors.initials: FW
authors.lastname: Muregi
authors.forename: Isao
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Ohta
authors.forename: Uchijima
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Masato
authors.forename: Hideto
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kino
authors.forename: Akira
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ishih
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects*; D004591:Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology*; D051379:Mice; D046529:Microscopy, Electron, Transmission; D010962:Plasmodium berghei / Q000166:cytology / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000472:pathogenicity; D013940:Thymidylate Synthase / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors*
chemical_list: D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors; D013940:Thymidylate Synthase