title: Cardiovascular and urological dysfunction in spinal cord injury.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  A spinal cord injury (SCI) above the sixth thoracic vertebra interrupts the supraspinal control of the sympathetic nervous system causing an imbalance between the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system. This article focuses on the symptoms, treatment and examination of autonomic disturbances of the cardiovascular and the urinary system after a SCI.
  
  
  METHODS
  A non-systematic literature search in the PubMed database.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Frequent complications in the acute phase of cervical and high thoracic SCI are bradyarrhythmias, hypotension, hypothermia/hyperthermia, increased neurogenic shock, vagovagal reflex, supraventricular/ventricular ectopic beats, vasodilatation and congestion. Serious complications in the chronic phase of SCI are orthostatic hypotension, impaired cardiovascular reflexes, autonomic dysreflexia (AD), reduced sensation of cardiac pain, loss of reflex cardiac acceleration, quadriplegic cardiac atrophy due to loss of left ventricular mass and pseudo-myocardial infarction. AD is associated with a sudden, uncontrolled sympathetic response, triggered by stimuli below the injury. It may cause mild symptoms like skin rash or slight headache, but also severe hypertension, cerebral haemorrhage and death. Early recognition and prompt treatment are important. Urinary autonomic dysfunctions include hyperreflexia or areflexia of detrusor and/or sphincter of the bladder.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Patients with SCI have a high risk of cardiovascular complications, AD and urinary autonomic dysfunction both in the acute phase and later, affecting their prognosis and quality of life. Knowledge of cardiovascular and urological complications after SCI is important for proper diagnosis and treatment.
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway Department of Heart Disease, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway. ellen.merete.hagen@helse-bergen.no
authors.forename: E M
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Hagen
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Faerestrand
authors.forename: J M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Hoff
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Rekand
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gronning
mesh_terms: D001342:Autonomic Nervous System Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D006801:Humans; D013119:Spinal Cord Injuries / Q000150:complications* / Q000503:physiopathology; D013904:Thoracic Vertebrae; D014570:Urologic Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology