title: Characteristics and comorbidity of ADHD sib pairs in the Central Valley of Costa Rica.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  While genetic epidemiological studies demonstrate a substantial degree of genetic predisposition for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), they also suggest that the genetics are complex and may differ between populations or ethnic groups.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This study describes the phenomenology of siblings with ADHD from the genetically isolated population of the Central Valley of Costa Rica.
  
  
  METHODS
  Rates of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV)-defined ADHD subtypes and comorbid conditions were calculated in a sample of 157 ADHD-affected children (probands and siblings) recruited for genetic studies using standardized approaches. Sib-sib comparisons and logistic regressions were conducted to identify significant patterns of concordance.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Combined-type ADHD (69.5%) was the most common subtype among probands, followed by the inattentive (27.4%), and hyperactive-impulsive (3.2%) subtypes. Anxiety disorders were prevalent (55.9%), as were disruptive behavior disorders (30.9%) and Tourette disorder (17.0%). Probands and siblings showed high sib-sib concordance for anxiety disorders.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  ADHD in Costa Rica is similar in clinical and demographic characteristics to ADHD seen in other parts of the world, although the rates of co-occurring psychiatric disorders differ somewhat from those previously reported in Latin American samples. Comorbid anxiety is prevalent, with high rates of sib-sib concordance, and may represent a distinct, homogeneous subgroup suitable for genetic studies.
authors.affiliation: Psychology Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Jovita
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Schuler
authors.forename: Nicholas T
authors.initials: NT
authors.lastname: Weiss
authors.forename: Denise A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Chavira
authors.forename: James J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: McGough
authors.forename: Monica
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Berrocal
authors.forename: Brooke
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Sheppard
authors.forename: Evelyn
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Vaglio
authors.forename: Eduardo
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Fournier
authors.forename: Luis Diego
authors.initials: LD
authors.lastname: Herrera
authors.forename: Carol A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Mathews
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D017668:Age of Onset; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000235:genetics; D002648:Child; D015897:Comorbidity; D003364:Costa Rica; D039721:Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D001523:Mental Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology*; D015995:Prevalence; D012720:Severity of Illness Index; D035781:Siblings