title: Consumption of DHA + EPA by low-income women during pregnancy and lactation.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The ω-3-fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is important in infant brain development and maturation. The advisable intake of the ω-3 fatty acids DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) for pregnant and lactating women is 300 mg/d or 9 g/month. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to test the hypothesis that low-income pregnant/or lactating women do not consume advisable amounts of DHA+EPA and to determine whether any of the measured demographic factors were related to DHA and EPA consumption.
  
  
  METHODS
  This study was conducted September 2007 to March 2008 and used the N-3 Fatty Acid Food Frequency Questionnaire for dietary assessment in a convenience sample of women (N = 68) enrolled in a local maternal infant health program. Women who reported fish or seafood allergies were excluded. The monthly consumption of DHA+EPA from food sources was measured, and participant race, ethnicity, country of origin, primary language, level of education, marital status, intake of prenatal vitamins containing DHA+EPA, and warnings of fish toxicity were assessed. The data were analyzed using 1-way analysis of variance and t tests.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The average reported DHA+EPA intake was 1.18 g/month across all race/ethnicities. African Americans consumed significantly more DHA+EPA, 2.79 g/month, compared with Hispanics (1.64 g) and Caucasians (0.93 g). United States natives consumed significantly more DHA+EPA than immigrants (2.45 g vs 1.55 g).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Low-income pregnant/and lactating women in the study consumed less than the advisable amounts of DHA+EPA. Both ethnicity and country of origin are related to DHA+EPA intake.
authors: Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Grand Valley State University, 1 Campus Drive, Allendale, MI 49401, USA. nocherac@gvsu.edu
authors: Carmen L
authors: CL
authors: Nochera
authors: Linda H
authors: LH
authors: Goossen
authors: Annette R
authors: AR
authors: Brutus
authors: Miranda
authors: M
authors: Cristales
authors: Bethany
authors: B
authors: Eastman
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004034:Diet Surveys; D004041:Dietary Fats / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D004281:Docosahexaenoic Acids / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D015118:Eicosapentaenoic Acid / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007182:Income; D007774:Lactation; D009751:Nutritional Requirements; D011203:Poverty; D011247:Pregnancy; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014481:United States
chemical_list: D004041:Dietary Fats; D004281:Docosahexaenoic Acids; D015118:Eicosapentaenoic Acid