title: Does consuming breakfast influence activity levels? An experiment into the effect of breakfast consumption on eating habits and energy expenditure.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To experimentally compare the effects of eating or skipping breakfast on energy expenditure, activity levels and dietary habits.
  
  
  METHODS
  A randomised cross-over trial, lasting 2 weeks. Participants were provided breakfast during one week and were required to fast until mid-day during the other week.
  
  
  METHODS
  University campus.
  
  
  METHODS
  Forty-nine participants (twenty-six female and twenty-three male participants) were recruited. Food intake was monitored using food diaries, and energy expenditure was assessed using pedometers and heart rate monitors. Morningness-eveningness, physical activity and health were assessed using validated questionnaires.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Across all participants, daily energy expenditure did not differ between the two experimental conditions. Total energy intake over 24 h did not vary with condition (male participants: 8134 (sd 447) kJ/d and 7514 (sd 368) kJ/d; female participants: 7778 (sd 410) kJ/d and 7531 (sd 535) kJ/d, for the breakfast and no-breakfast conditions, respectively). However, when comparing habitual breakfast eaters with those with irregular or breakfast-skipping habits, it was found that male non-habitual breakfast eaters consumed significantly (P = 0·029) more energy during the breakfast condition. Furthermore, female participants who were habitual breakfast eaters were found to eat significantly (P = 0·005) more and later in the day under the no-breakfast condition.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Although the suggestion that breakfast is a behavioural marker for appropriate dietary and physical activity patterns is not refuted by the present findings, our data suggest that the effect of breakfast may vary as a function of gender and morning eating habits, and thus there may be other mechanisms that link BMI and breakfast consumption behaviour.
authors: Department of Life Sciences, Roehampton University, Holybourne Avenue, London SW15 4JD, UK.
authors: Lewis G
authors: LG
authors: Halsey
authors: Jörg W
authors: JW
authors: Huber
authors: Tzetze
authors: T
authors: Low
authors: Chinwe
authors: C
authors: Ibeawuchi
authors: Polly
authors: P
authors: Woodruff
authors: Sue
authors: S
authors: Reeves
mesh_terms: D056044:Actigraphy; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002940:Circadian Rhythm / Q000502:physiology; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D002149:Energy Intake / Q000502:physiology*; D004734:Energy Metabolism / Q000502:physiology*; D015444:Exercise / Q000502:physiology; D005247:Feeding Behavior / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006339:Heart Rate / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D008131:London; D008297:Male; D009765:Obesity / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology; D055815:Young Adult