title: Upper respiratory tract disease in captive orangutans (Pongo sp.): prevalence in 20 European zoos and predisposing factors.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) is a significant cause of morbidity in captive orangutans (Pongo abelii, Pongo pygmaeus), and the pathogenesis is often unknown.
  
  
  METHODS
  The prevalence of respiratory disease in captive European orangutans (201 animals; 20 zoos) and possible predisposing factors were investigated.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Bornean orangutans (P. pygmaeus) showed chronic respiratory signs significantly more often (13.8%) than Sumatran (P. abelii; 3.6%), and males (15.8%) were more often afflicted than females (3.9%). Hand-reared animals (21%) developed air sacculitis more often than parent-reared animals (5%). Diseased animals were more often genetically related to animals with respiratory diseases (93%) than to healthy animals (54%). None of the environmental conditions investigated had a significant effect on disease prevalence.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Results suggest a higher importance of individual factors for the development of URTD than environmental conditions. Bornean, male and hand-reared orangutans and animals related to diseased animals need increased medical surveillance for early detection of respiratory disease.
authors.affiliation: Clinic for Zoo Animals, Exotic Pets and Wildlife, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland.
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Zimmermann
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Pirovino
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Zingg
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Clauss
authors.forename: F J
authors.initials: FJ
authors.lastname: Kaup
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Heistermann
authors.forename: J M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Hatt
authors.forename: H W
authors.initials: HW
authors.lastname: Steinmetz
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D018420:Ape Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology* / Q000473:pathology; D005060:Europe; D005260:Female; D008297:Male; D057080:Pongo abelii; D011148:Pongo pygmaeus; D015995:Prevalence; D012140:Respiratory Tract Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000473:pathology / Q000662:veterinary*; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D012737:Sex Factors; D013045:Species Specificity