title: Investigation into the optimal linear time-invariant lag correction for radar artifact removal.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Detector lag, or residual signal, in amorphous silicon (a-Si) flat-panel (FP) detectors can cause significant shading artifacts in cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) reconstructions. To date, most correction models have assumed a linear, time-invariant (LTI) model and lag is corrected by deconvolution with an impulse response function (IRF). However, there are many ways to determine the IRF. The purpose of this work is to better understand detector lag in the Varian 4030CB FP and to identify the IRF measurement technique that best removes the CBCT shading artifact.
  
  
  METHODS
  We investigated the linearity of lag in a Varian 4030CB a-Si FP operating in dynamic gain mode at 15 frames per second by examining the rising step-response function (RSRF) followed by the falling step-response function (FSRF) at ten incident exposures (0.5%-84% of a-Si FP saturation exposure). We implemented a multiexponential (N = 4) LTI model for lag correction and investigated the effects of various techniques for determining the IRF such as RSRF versus FSRF, exposure intensity, length of exposure, and spatial position. The resulting IRFs were applied to (1) the step-response projection data and (2) CBCT acquisitions of a large pelvic phantom and acrylic head phantom. For projection data, 1st and 50th frame lags were measured pre- and postcorrection. For the CBCT reconstructions, four pairs of ROIs were defined and the maximum and mean errors within each pair were calculated for the different exposures and step-response edge techniques.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A nonlinearity greater than 50% was observed in the FSRF data. A model calibrated with RSRF data resulted in overcorrection of FSRF data. Conversely, models calibrated with FSRF data applied to RSRF data resulted in undercorrection of the RSRF. Similar effects were seen when LTI models were applied to data collected at different incident exposures. Some spatial variation in lag was observed in the step-response data. For CBCT reconstructions, an average error range of 3-21 HU was observed when using IRFs from different techniques. For our phantoms and FP, the lowest average error occurred for the FSRF-based techniques at exposures of 1.6 or 3.4% a-Si FP saturation, depending on the phantom used.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The choice of step-response edge (RSRF versus FSRF) and exposure intensity for IRF calibration could leave large residual lag in the step-response data. For the CBCT reconstructions, IRFs derived from FSRF data at low exposure intensities (1.6 and 3.4%) best removed the CBCT shading artifact. Which IRF to use for lag correction could be selected based on the object size.
authors.affiliation: Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA. jstarman@stanford.edu
authors.forename: Jared
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Starman
authors.forename: Josh
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Star-Lack
authors.forename: Gary
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Virshup
authors.forename: Edward
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Shapiro
authors.forename: Rebecca
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Fahrig
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D016477:Artifacts; D003198:Computer Simulation; D006801:Humans; D016014:Linear Models; D011825:Radar; D011856:Radiographic Image Enhancement / Q000379:methods*; D011857:Radiographic Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods*; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed / Q000379:methods*