title: Errorless and errorful learning modulated by transcranial direct current stimulation.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Errorless learning is advantageous over trial and error learning (errorful learning) as errors are avoided during learning resulting in increased memory performance. Errorful learning challenges the executive control system of memory processes as the erroneous items compete with the correct items during retrieval. The left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is a core region involved in this executive control system. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can modify the excitability of underlying brain functioning.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In a single blinded tDCS study one group of young healthy participants received anodal and another group cathodal tDCS of the left DLPFC each compared to sham stimulation. Participants had to learn words in an errorless and an errorful manner using a word stem completion paradigm. The results showed that errorless compared to errorful learning had a profound effect on the memory performance in terms of quality. Anodal stimulation of the left DLPFC did not modulate the memory performance following errorless or errorful learning. By contrast, cathodal stimulation hampered memory performance after errorful learning compared to sham, whereas there was no modulation after errorless learning.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Concluding, the study further supports the advantages of errorless learning over errorful learning. Moreover, cathodal stimulation of the left DLPFC hampered memory performance following the conflict-inducing errorful learning as compared to no modulation after errorless learning emphasizing the importance of the left DLPFC in executive control of memory.
authors.affiliation: Dept. of Neurology, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23538 Lübeck, Germany.
authors.forename: Anke
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hammer
authors.forename: Bahram
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Mohammadi
authors.forename: Marlen
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Schmicker
authors.forename: Sina
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Saliger
authors.forename: Thomas F
authors.initials: TF
authors.lastname: Münte
mesh_terms: D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007858:Learning / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D009473:Neuronal Plasticity / Q000502:physiology*; D017397:Prefrontal Cortex; D016037:Single-Blind Method; D013647:Task Performance and Analysis; D050781:Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation / Q000379:methods*; D055815:Young Adult