title: Association between six environmental chemicals and lung cancer incidence in the United States.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  An increased risk of lung cancer has been observed at exposure to certain industrial chemicals in occupational settings; however, less is known about their carcinogenic potential to the general population when those agents are released into the environment.
  
  
  METHODS
  We used the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) database and Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) data to conduct an ecological study at the county level. We used multiple linear regression to assess the association of age-adjusted lung cancer incidence with the quantities of on-site air and water releases of six selected industrial chemicals including arsenic, 1,3 butadiene, cadmium, chromium, formaldehyde, and nickel after controlling for other risk variables.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Overall, we observed a significantly increased risk of lung cancer incidence associated with releases of chromium, formaldehyde, and nickel. The links were present for both males and females. Significant effects were present in nonmetropolitan but not metropolitan counties. Releases of arsenic, 1,3 butadiene, and cadmium were reported by small numbers of facilities, and no relationships to lung cancer incidence were detected.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results suggest that environmental exposure to chromium, formaldehyde, and nickel from TRI sites may increase population risk of lung cancer. These findings need to be confirmed in individual-level studies, but in congruence with the precautionary principle in environmental science, support prudent efforts to limit release of these agents into the environment.
authors.affiliation: Department of Community Medicine, School of Medicine, West Virginia University, P.O. Box 9190, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
authors.forename: Juhua
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Luo
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hendryx
authors.forename: Alan
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ducatman
mesh_terms: D000704:Analysis of Variance; D001151:Arsenic / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D002070:Butadienes / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D002274:Carcinogens, Environmental / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D005260:Female; D005557:Formaldehyde / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D015386:Hazardous Substances / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D016014:Linear Models; D008175:Lung Neoplasms / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000453:epidemiology; D008297:Male; D019216:Metals, Heavy / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D018426:SEER Program; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology
chemical_list: D002070:Butadienes; D002274:Carcinogens, Environmental; D015386:Hazardous Substances; D019216:Metals, Heavy; D005557:Formaldehyde; C031763:1,3-butadiene; D001151:Arsenic