title: Language-learning impairments: a 30-year follow-up of language-impaired children with and without psychiatric, neurological and cognitive difficulties.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This study investigated the long-term consequences of language impairments for academic, educational and socio-economic outcomes. It also assessed the unique contributions of childhood measures of speech and language, non-verbal IQ, and of psychiatric and neurological problems.
  
  
  METHODS
  The study was a 30-year follow-up of 198 participants originally diagnosed with language impairments at 3-9 years. Childhood diagnoses were based on language and cognitive abilities, social maturity, motor development, and psychiatric and neurological signs. At follow-up the participants responded to a questionnaire about literacy, education, employment, economic independence and family status. The response rate was 42% (198/470).
  
  
  RESULTS
  At follow-up a majority of the participants reported literacy difficulties, unemployment and low socio-economic status-at rates significantly higher than in the general population. Participants diagnosed as children with specific language impairments had significantly better outcomes than those with additional diagnoses, even when non-verbal IQ was normal or statistically controlled. Childhood measures accounted for up to 52% of the variance in adult outcomes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Psychiatric and neurological comorbidity is relevant for adult outcomes of language impairments even when non-verbal IQ is normal.
authors.affiliation: Department of Nordic Studies and Linguistics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark. ce@hum.ku.dk
authors.forename: Carsten
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Elbro
authors.forename: Mogens
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Dalby
authors.forename: Stine
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Maarbjerg
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002648:Child; D002663:Child Language; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003071:Cognition; D015897:Comorbidity; D004522:Educational Status; D004651:Employment / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D007360:Intelligence; D007805:Language Development Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000534:rehabilitation*; D007859:Learning Disabilities / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000534:rehabilitation*; D008297:Male; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D011932:Reading; D012923:Social Class; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013997:Time Factors