title: Effects of economic downturns on mortality of wild African elephants.
abstract: Declines in economic activity and associated changes in human livelihood strategies can increase threats of species overexploitation. This is exemplified by the effects of economic crises, which often drive intensification of subsistence poaching and greater reliance on natural resources. Whereas development theory links natural resource use to social-economic conditions, few empirical studies of the effect of economic downturns on wild animal species have been conducted. I assessed the relations between African elephant (Loxodonta africana) mortality and human-caused wounds in Samburu, Kenya and (1) livestock and maize prices (measures of local economic conditions), (2) change in national and regional gross domestic product (GDP) (measures of macroeconomic conditions), and (3) the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) (a correlate of primary productivity). In addition, I analyzed household survey data to determine the attitudes of local people toward protected areas and wild animals in the area. When cattle prices in the pastoralist study region were low, human-caused wounds to and adult mortality of elephants increased. The NDVI was negatively correlated with juvenile mortality, but not correlated with adult mortality. Changes in Kenyan and East Asian (primary market for ivory) GDP did not explain significant variation in mortality. Increased human wounding of elephants and elephant mortality during periods of low livestock prices (local economic downturns) likely reflect an economically driven increase in ivory poaching. Local but not macroeconomic indices explained significant variation in mortality, likely due to the dominance of the subsistence economy in the study area and its political and economic isolation. My results suggest economic metrics can serve as effective indicators of changes in human use of and resulting effects on natural resources. Such information can help focus management approaches (e.g., antipoaching effort or proffering of alternative occupational opportunities) that address variation in local activities that threaten plant and animal populations.
authors.affiliation: Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA. g.wittemyer@colostate.edu
authors.forename: George
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Wittemyer
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003132:Commerce / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D003710:Demography; D004467:Economics; D004606:Elephants / Q000293:injuries*; D059066:Gross Domestic Product / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D006801:Humans; D007630:Kenya; D058751:Livestock; D018803:Models, Economic; D009026:Mortality; D012044:Regression Analysis; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D003313:Zea mays / Q000191:economics