title: Pacing strategy in schoolchildren differs with age and cognitive development.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The study's purpose was to examine differences in pacing strategy between schoolchildren of different age, gender, and stage of cognitive development.
  
  
  METHODS
  Schoolchildren (n = 106) from four age groups (5-6, 8-9, 11-12, and 14 yr) participated in this study. Each schoolchild completed four conservation tasks to evaluate his or her Piagetian stage of cognitive development. Each schoolchild then performed a best-effort running task on a 150-m running track that was video recorded to analyze pace at 5% increments. The length of the run was varied for each age group to ensure that all schoolchildren were running for approximately 4 min (5-6 yr = 450 m, 8-9 yr = 600 m, 11-12 yr = 750 m, and 14 yr = 900 m).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Differences in pacing strategy were found between schoolchildren of different age (P < 0.0001), gender (P < 0.0001), and cognitive development (P < 0.0001). Pacing differences were also found between age groups after controlling for cognitive development (P < 0.001), between cognitive abilities after controlling for age (P < 0.01), and between genders after controlling for both age (P < 0.0001) and cognitive ability (P < 0.0001).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Younger schoolchildren with less advanced cognitive development exhibited a negative pacing strategy indicating an inability to anticipate exercise demand. Older schoolchildren at a more advanced stage of cognitive development exhibited a more conservative U-shaped pacing strategy characterized by faster running speeds during the first 15% and last 20% of the run. Anticipatory pacing strategy seems to be related to both the age and cognitive development of schoolchildren.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. dpmick@essex.ac.uk
authors.forename: Dominic
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Micklewright
authors.forename: Caroline
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Angus
authors.forename: Jane
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Suddaby
authors.forename: Alan
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: St Clair Gibson
authors.forename: Gavin
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Sandercock
authors.forename: Camilla
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Chinnasamy
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000367:Age Factors; D054874:Athletic Performance / Q000523:psychology*; D002648:Child; D002657:Child Development; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003071:Cognition; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D012420:Running / Q000523:psychology*; D012737:Sex Factors