title: A three-dimensional analysis of humeral head retroversion.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The anatomic neck of the humerus is used as a reference for the osteotomy in shoulder arthroplasty. Resection along the anterior portion of the cartilage/metaphyseal border is assumed to remove a cap of a sphere that can accurately be replaced with a spherical prosthetic implant oriented precisely to the original articular surface. The aim of this study was to determine the variability in retroversion of the cartilage/metaphyseal interface in the axial plane.
  
  
  METHODS
  Surface topography data for 24 arms from deceased donors were collected by using a hand-held digitizer and a surface laser scanner. Data were combined into the same coordinate system and graphically presented. The humeral head was divided into 6 sections in the axial plane and the retroversion angle measured at each level with reference to the transepicondylar axis at the elbow.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The mean retroversion of the humeral head at the midpoint between the superior and inferior margins was 18.6°. The angle increased as the position of the measurement moved superiorly to 22.5°. In contrast, the retroversion angle reduced as the position of measurement moved more inferiorly to 14.3°.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results suggest that the cartilage/metaphyseal interface is not circular encompassing a spherical cap of a sphere. Furthermore, there appears to be a clockwise torsion of the cartilage/metaphyseal interface about the transverse axis from its medial to lateral aspect.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The cartilage/metaphyseal interface shows a degree of variability that makes it an unreliable landmark to perform an osteotomy when the anterior aspect of the interface is used.
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, College of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, University of Dundee, TORT Centre, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, Dundee DD1 9SY, Scotland, UK. fraserharrold@doctors.org.uk
authors.forename: Fraser
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Harrold
authors.forename: Carlos
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Wigderowitz
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D059925:Anatomic Landmarks; D001178:Arthroplasty / Q000379:methods; D002102:Cadaver; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D058430:Humeral Head / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000601:surgery; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000379:methods*; D008297:Male; D010027:Osteotomy