title: Histopathological analysis and in situ localisation of Australian tiger snake venom in two clinically envenomed domestic animals.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess histopathological changes in clinically envenomed tiger snake patients and identify tissue specific localisation of venom toxins using immunohistochemistry.
  
  
  METHODS
  One feline and one canine patient admitted to the Murdoch Pet Emergency Centre (MPEC), Murdoch University with tiger snake (Notechis sp.) envenoming. Both patients died as a result of envenomation. Non-envenomed tissue was also collected and used for comparison.
  
  
  METHODS
  Biopsy samples (heart, lung, kidney andskeletal muscle tissue) were retrieved 1-2 h post death and processed for histopathological examination using Haemotoxylin and Eosin, Martius Scarlet Blue and Periodic Acid Schiff staining. Tissues were examined by light microscopy and tissue sections subjected to immunohistochemical staining using in-house generated monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies against Notechis venoms.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Venom-induced pathological changes were observed in the lungs, kidneys and muscle tissue of both patients. Evidence, not previously noted, of procoagulant venom effects were apparent, with formed thrombi in the heart, lungs (small fibrillar aggregates and larger, discrete thrombi) and kidneys. Immunohistochemical assays revealed venom present in the pulmonary tissue, in and around the glomerular capsule and surrounding tubules in renal tissue and scattered throughout the Gastrocnemius muscle tissue.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This work has shown pathological evidence of procoagulant venom activity supporting previous suggestions that an initial thrombotic state occurs in envenomed patients. We have shown that venom toxins are able to be localised to specific tissues, in this case, venom was detected in the lung, kidney and muscle tissues of clinically envenomed animals. Future work will examine specific toxin localisation using monoclonal antibodies and identify if antivenom molecules are able to reach their target tissues.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Forensic Science, University of Western Australia, Australia. t.jacoby@ecu.edu.au
authors.forename: T E
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: Jacoby-Alner
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Stephens
authors.forename: K M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Davern
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Balmer
authors.forename: S G A
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Brown
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Swindells
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001777:Blood Coagulation / Q000187:drug effects; D002371:Cat Diseases / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000473:pathology*; D002415:Cats; D004283:Dog Diseases / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000473:pathology*; D004285:Dogs; D004546:Elapid Venoms / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D005260:Female; D006321:Heart / Q000187:drug effects; D007150:Immunohistochemistry; D007668:Kidney / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology; D008168:Lung / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology; D008297:Male; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology; D009206:Myocardium / Q000473:pathology; D012909:Snake Bites / Q000473:pathology / Q000662:veterinary*
chemical_list: D004546:Elapid Venoms