title: Vitamin D, calcium, and cardiovascular mortality: a perspective from a plenary lecture given at the annual meeting of the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To examine data showing associations between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and calcium intake and cardiovascular mortality.
  
  
  METHODS
  The articles reviewed include those published from 1992-2011 derived from search engines (PubMed, Scopus, Medscape) using the following search terms: vitamin D, calcium, cardiovascular events, cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality, vascular calcification, chronic kidney disease, renal stones, and hypercalciuria. Because these articles were not weighted (graded) on the level of evidence, this review reflects my own perspective on the data and how they should be applied to clinical management.
  
  
  RESULTS
  For skeletal health, vitamin D and calcium are both needed to ensure proper skeletal growth (modeling) and repair (remodeling). Nutritional deficiencies of either vitamin D or calcium may lead to a spectrum of metabolic bone disorders. Excessive consumption of either nutrient has been linked to a variety of medical disorders, such as hypercalcemia or renal stones. There have also been associations between vitamin D or calcium intake and cardiovascular disease. However, neither of these associations have established evidence nor known causality for increasing cardiovascular risk or all-cause mortality in patients with creatinine clearances greater than 60 mL/min. In patients with more severe chronic kidney disease, stronger data link excess calcium (or phosphorus) intake and increase in vascular calcification, but not mortality. The safe upper limit for vitamin D intake is at least 4000 IU daily and probably 10 000 IU daily; for calcium, the safe upper limit is between 2000 and 3000 mg daily.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  While no solid scientific evidence validates that serum vitamin D levels between 15 and 70 ng/mL are associated with increased cardiovascular disease risk, stronger but inconsistent evidence shows an association between calcium supplementation greater than 500 mg daily and an increase in cardiovascular disease risk. Most professional societies suggest that replacement levels of these nutrients be personalized with the goal of reaching a 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration between 30 and 50 ng/mL and a calcium intake of 1200 mg daily.
authors.affiliation: Colorado Center for Bone Research, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Lakewood, Colorado, USA. millerccbr@aol.com
authors.forename: Paul D
authors.initials: PD
authors.lastname: Miller
mesh_terms: D002118:Calcium / Q000378:metabolism*; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000401:mortality*; D003226:Congresses as Topic; D006801:Humans; D014807:Vitamin D / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D014807:Vitamin D; D002118:Calcium