title: The lifetime impact of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The aim of the study was to present nationally representative data on the lifetime independent association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and psychiatric co-morbidity, correlates, quality of life and treatment seeking in the USA.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data were derived from a large national sample of the US population. Face-to-face surveys of more than 34 000 adults aged 18 years and older residing in households were conducted during the 2004-2005 period. Diagnoses of ADHD, Axis I and II disorders were based on the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule-DSM-IV version.
  
  
  RESULTS
  ADHD was associated independently of the effects of other psychiatric co-morbidity with increased risk of bipolar disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, specific phobia, and narcissistic, histrionic, borderline, antisocial and schizotypal personality disorders. A lifetime history of ADHD was also associated with increased risk of engaging in behaviors reflecting lack of planning and deficient inhibitory control, with high rates of adverse events, lower perceived health, social support and higher perceived stress. Fewer than half of individuals with ADHD had ever sought treatment, and about one-quarter had ever received medication. The average age of first treatment contact was 18.40 years.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  ADHD is common and associated with a broad range of psychiatric disorders, impulsive behaviors, greater number of traumas, lower quality of life, perceived social support and social functioning, even after adjusting for additional co-morbidity. When treatment is sought, it is often in late adolescence or early adulthood, suggesting the need to improve diagnosis and treatment of ADHD.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University/New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA. silvia.bernardi@gmail.com
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bernardi
authors.forename: S V
authors.initials: SV
authors.lastname: Faraone
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Cortese
authors.forename: B T
authors.initials: BT
authors.lastname: Kerridge
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Pallanti
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Blanco
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000453:epidemiology*; D002648:Child; D015897:Comorbidity; D017281:Cost of Illness; D039721:Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; D005260:Female; D006306:Health Surveys; D006801:Humans; D007175:Impulsive Behavior / Q000523:psychology; D007406:Interview, Psychological; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D001523:Mental Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology*; D008875:Middle Aged; D010342:Patient Acceptance of Health Care / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D015995:Prevalence; D011788:Quality of Life; D012944:Social Support; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology; D055815:Young Adult