title: The missing variable: ultrasonic vocalizations reveal hidden sensitization and tolerance-like effects during long-term cocaine administration.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Subtypes of 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) in rats are thought to reflect positive affect and occur with cocaine or amphetamine delivery. In contexts predicting forthcoming cocaine, pre-drug anticipatory USVs are initially minimal during daily sessions but gradually escalate over several weeks, presumably as the animal learns to expect and look forward to impending drug access. To gain more insight into motivational aspects of cocaine intake in animal models of drug dependence studies, it is important to compare experience-dependent changes in lever response rate, USVs, and locomotion during cocaine conditioning and extinction trials.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To address whether cocaine-induced increases in lever responding and locomotor activity correspond with USV production. The study also determined whether short-term cocaine and context deprivation effects could be detected during conditioning or extinction.
  
  
  METHODS
  Rats underwent 20 days of 60-min sessions of self- or yoked administration of cocaine (0.75 mg/kg/infusion, i.v.), followed by 19 days of extinction training (8 weeks total, weekends off).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Lever responding for cocaine and cocaine-induced locomotor activity increased across conditioning sessions. In contrast, the number of frequency modulated 50-kHz USVs evoked in response to cocaine infusion decreased with cocaine experience, suggesting perhaps tolerance to the rewarding properties of the drug. In addition, USVs but not lever pressing or locomotion are affected after brief periods of drug and/or drug context abstinence.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Except for initial drug exposure, increased cocaine seeking during cocaine delivery could reflect either enhanced drug motivation or the development of drug tolerance, but not enhanced positive affect.
authors.affiliation: Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
authors.forename: Esther Y
authors.initials: EY
authors.lastname: Maier
authors.forename: Mohamed
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Abdalla
authors.forename: Allison M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Ahrens
authors.forename: Timothy
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Schallert
authors.forename: Christine L
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Duvauchelle
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal / Q000187:drug effects*; D003042:Cocaine / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000494:pharmacology*; D019970:Cocaine-Related Disorders / Q000503:physiopathology*; D003213:Conditioning, Psychological / Q000187:drug effects; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D004361:Drug Tolerance; D005108:Extinction, Psychological / Q000187:drug effects; D008124:Locomotion / Q000187:drug effects; D008297:Male; D009042:Motivation; D051381:Rats; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D012201:Reward; D012646:Self Administration; D014465:Ultrasonics; D014828:Vocalization, Animal / Q000187:drug effects*
chemical_list: D003042:Cocaine