title: Occupational health of miners at altitude: adverse health effects, toxic exposures, pre-placement screening, acclimatization, and worker surveillance.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Mining operations conducted at high altitudes provide health challenges for workers as well as for medical personnel.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To review the literature regarding adverse health effects and toxic exposures that may be associated with mining operations conducted at altitude and to discuss pre-placement screening, acclimatization issues, and on-site surveillance strategies.
  
  
  METHODS
  We used the Ovid ( http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com ) search engine to conduct a MEDLINE search for "coal mining" or "mining" and "altitude sickness" or "altitude" and a second MEDLINE search for "occupational diseases" and "altitude sickness" or "altitude." The search identified 97 articles of which 76 were relevant. In addition, the references of these 76 articles were manually reviewed for relevant articles. CARDIOVASCULAR EFFECTS: High altitude is associated with increased sympathetic tone that may result in elevated blood pressure, particularly in workers with pre-existing hypertension. Workers with a history of coronary artery disease experience ischemia at lower work rates at high altitude, while those with a history of congestive heart failure have decreased exercise tolerance at high altitude as compared to healthy controls and are at higher risk of suffering an exacerbation of their heart failure. PULMONARY EFFECTS: High altitude is associated with various adverse pulmonary effects, including high-altitude pulmonary edema, pulmonary hypertension, subacute mountain sickness, and chronic mountain sickness. Mining at altitude has been reported to accelerate silicosis and other pneumoconioses. Miners with pre-existing pneumoconioses may experience an exacerbation of their condition at altitude. Persons traveling to high altitude have a higher incidence of Cheyne-Stokes respiration while sleeping than do persons native to high altitude. Obesity increases the risk of pulmonary hypertension, acute mountain sickness, and sleep-disordered breathing. NEUROLOGICAL EFFECTS: The most common adverse neurological effect of high altitude is acute mountain sickness, while the most severe adverse neurological effect is high-altitude cerebral edema. Poor sleep quality and sleep-disordered breathing may contribute to daytime sleepiness and impaired cognitive performance that could potentially result in workplace injuries, particularly in miners who are already at increased risk of suffering unintentional workplace injuries. OPHTHALMOLOGICAL EFFECTS: Adverse ophthalmological effects include increased exposure to ultraviolet light and xerophthalmia, which may be further exacerbated by occupational dust exposure. RENAL EFFECTS: High altitude is associated with a protective effect in patients with renal disease, although it is unknown how this would affect miners with a history of chronic renal disease from exposure to silica and other renal toxicants. HEMATOLOGICAL EFFECTS: Advanced age increases the risk of erythrocytosis and chronic mountain sickness in miners. Thrombotic and thromboembolic events are also more common at high altitude. MUSCULOSKELETAL EFFECTS: Miners are at increased risk for low back pain due to occupational factors, and the easy fatigue at altitude has been reported to further predispose workers to this disorder. TOXIC EXPOSURES: Diesel emissions at altitude contain more carbon monoxide due to increased incomplete combustion of fuel. In addition, a given partial pressure of carbon monoxide at altitude will result in a larger percentage of carboxyhemoglobin at altitude. Miners with a diagnosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease may be at higher risk for morbidity from exposure to diesel exhaust at altitude.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Both mining and work at altitude have independently been associated with a number of adverse health effects, although the combined effect of mining activities and high altitude has not been adequately studied. Careful selection of workers, appropriate acclimatization, and limited on-site surveillance can help control most health risks. Further research is necessary to more completely understand the risks of mining at altitude and delineate what characteristics of potential employees put them at risk for altitude-related morbidity or mortality.
authors.affiliation: Department of Emergency Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Vearrier
authors.forename: Michael I
authors.initials: MI
authors.lastname: Greenberg
mesh_terms: D000064:Acclimatization; D000395:Air Pollutants, Occupational / Q000009:adverse effects*; D000531:Altitude; D000532:Altitude Sickness / Q000209:etiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D005128:Eye Diseases / Q000209:etiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D006801:Humans; D008403:Mass Screening; D008906:Mining; D009422:Nervous System Diseases / Q000209:etiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D009784:Occupational Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology* / Q000517:prevention & control; D016273:Occupational Exposure; D016272:Occupational Health; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012307:Risk Factors; D017751:Safety Management
chemical_list: D000395:Air Pollutants, Occupational