title: Development of ELISA-based methods to measure the anti-malarial drug chloroquine in plasma and in pharmaceutical formulations.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In Central and South America and Eastern and Southern Africa, Plasmodium vivax infections accounts for 71-81% and 5% of malaria cases, respectively. In these areas, chloroquine (CQ) remains the treatment of choice for P. vivax malaria. In addition, CQ has recently proven to be an effective HIV-1 therapeutic agent. There is a dire need to continue monitoring quality of CQ as there is a major influx of substandard and fake formulations into malaria-endemic countries. The use of fake/substandard drugs will result in sub-therapeutic levels endangering the patient and possibly select for parasite resistance. The aim of this study was to develop an inexpensive, simple antibody-based ELISA to measure CQ concentrations in tablets and in plasma.
  
  
  METHODS
  A monoclonal antibody (MAb) that reacts with the N-side chain of the CQ molecule was prepared by use of a CQ analogue. A specific and reliable ELISA for detection of CQ was developed. The developed assay was validated by measuring CQ in tablets sold in Denmark, India and Sudan. Furthermore, kinetics of CQ concentrations in plasma of four volunteers, who ingested two tablets of Malarex® containing, 250 mg CQ base, were measured before drug intake, three hours later and thereafter at days 1, 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28. The same plasma samples were simultaneously measured by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
  
  
  RESULTS
  The ELISA proved an easy-to-handle and very sensitive tool for the detection of CQ with a lower limit of detection at 3.9 ng/ml. ELISA levels of CQ in plasma showed high agreement with the levels obtained by HPLC (r = 0.98). The specificity in the negative control group was 100%.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The developed ELISA can be used for quality screening of CQ in pharmaceutical formulations and for drug monitoring in malaria and in other infectious diseases, such as HIV, where CQ proved to be an effective therapeutic agent. The methodology has been exploited to develop monoclonal antibodies for the drugs used in artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT).
authors.affiliation: Centre for Medical Parasitology at Department of International Health, Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark. insafk@sund.ku.dk
authors.forename: Insaf F
authors.initials: IF
authors.lastname: Khalil
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Alifrangis
authors.forename: Camilla
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Recke
authors.forename: Lotte C
authors.initials: LC
authors.lastname: Hoegberg
authors.forename: Anita
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ronn
authors.forename: Ib C
authors.initials: IC
authors.lastname: Bygbjerg
authors.forename: Claus
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Koch
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000911:Antibodies, Monoclonal / Q000302:isolation & purification; D000962:Antimalarials / Q000032:analysis*; D002623:Chemistry Techniques, Analytical; D002738:Chloroquine / Q000032:analysis*; D004797:Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay / Q000379:methods; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D051379:Mice; D008807:Mice, Inbred BALB C; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations / Q000737:chemistry*; D010949:Plasma / Q000737:chemistry*; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity
chemical_list: D000911:Antibodies, Monoclonal; D000962:Antimalarials; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations; D002738:Chloroquine