title: Vascular endothelial growth factor regulates melanoma cell adhesion and growth in the bone marrow microenvironment via tumor cyclooxygenase-2.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Human melanoma frequently colonizes bone marrow (BM) since its earliest stage of systemic dissemination, prior to clinical metastasis occurrence. However, how melanoma cell adhesion and proliferation mechanisms are regulated within bone marrow stromal cell (BMSC) microenvironment remain unclear. Consistent with the prometastatic role of inflammatory and angiogenic factors, several studies have reported elevated levels of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in melanoma although its pathogenic role in bone marrow melanoma metastasis is unknown.
  
  
  METHODS
  Herein we analyzed the effect of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor celecoxib in a model of generalized BM dissemination of left cardiac ventricle-injected B16 melanoma (B16M) cells into healthy and bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-pretreated mice to induce inflammation. In addition, B16M and human A375 melanoma (A375M) cells were exposed to conditioned media from basal and LPS-treated primary cultured murine and human BMSCs, and the contribution of COX-2 to the adhesion and proliferation of melanoma cells was also studied.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Mice given one single intravenous injection of LPS 6 hour prior to cancer cells significantly increased B16M metastasis in BM compared to untreated mice; however, administration of oral celecoxib reduced BM metastasis incidence and volume in healthy mice, and almost completely abrogated LPS-dependent melanoma metastases. In vitro, untreated and LPS-treated murine and human BMSC-conditioned medium (CM) increased VCAM-1-dependent BMSC adherence and proliferation of B16M and A375M cells, respectively, as compared to basal medium-treated melanoma cells. Addition of celecoxib to both B16M and A375M cells abolished adhesion and proliferation increments induced by BMSC-CM. TNFα and VEGF secretion increased in the supernatant of LPS-treated BMSCs; however, anti-VEGF neutralizing antibodies added to B16M and A375M cells prior to LPS-treated BMSC-CM resulted in a complete abrogation of both adhesion- and proliferation-stimulating effect of BMSC on melanoma cells. Conversely, recombinant VEGF increased adherence to BMSC and proliferation of both B16M and A375M cells, compared to basal medium-treated cells, while addition of celecoxib neutralized VEGF effects on melanoma. Recombinant TNFα induced B16M production of VEGF via COX-2-dependent mechanism. Moreover, exogenous PGE2 also increased B16M cell adhesion to immobilized recombinant VCAM-1.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We demonstrate the contribution of VEGF-induced tumor COX-2 to the regulation of adhesion- and proliferation-stimulating effects of TNFα, from endotoxin-activated bone marrow stromal cells, on VLA-4-expressing melanoma cells. These data suggest COX-2 neutralization as a potential anti-metastatic therapy in melanoma patients at high risk of systemic and bone dissemination due to intercurrent infectious and inflammatory diseases.
authors.affiliation: CEU-San Pablo University School of Medicine and Hospital of Madrid Scientific Foundation, Institute of Applied Molecular Medicine, IMMA, Madrid, Spain.
authors.forename: María
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Valcárcel
authors.forename: Lorea
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Mendoza
authors.forename: José-Julio
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Hernández
authors.forename: Teresa
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Carrascal
authors.forename: Clarisa
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Salado
authors.forename: Olatz
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Crende
authors.forename: Fernando
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Vidal-Vanaclocha
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D015153:Blotting, Western; D001853:Bone Marrow / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology*; D019046:Bone Marrow Neoplasms / Q000473:pathology / Q000556:secondary; D000068579:Celecoxib; D002448:Cell Adhesion / Q000187:drug effects; D045744:Cell Line, Tumor; D049109:Cell Proliferation / Q000187:drug effects; D060833:Cellular Microenvironment / Q000187:drug effects*; D017077:Culture Media, Conditioned / Q000494:pharmacology; D051546:Cyclooxygenase 2 / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D008070:Lipopolysaccharides / Q000494:pharmacology; D008297:Male; D008545:Melanoma / Q000201:enzymology* / Q000473:pathology*; D008546:Melanoma, Experimental / Q000201:enzymology / Q000473:pathology; D051379:Mice; D008810:Mice, Inbred C57BL; D008954:Models, Biological; D011720:Pyrazoles / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000494:pharmacology; D017154:Stromal Cells / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D013449:Sulfonamides / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000494:pharmacology; D019010:Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1 / Q000494:pharmacology; D042461:Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology*
chemical_list: D017077:Culture Media, Conditioned; D008070:Lipopolysaccharides; D011720:Pyrazoles; D013449:Sulfonamides; D019010:Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1; D042461:Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A; D051546:Cyclooxygenase 2; D000068579:Celecoxib