title: Risk factors for hyperopia and myopia in preschool children the multi-ethnic pediatric eye disease and Baltimore pediatric eye disease studies.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To describe the risk factors associated with hyperopia and myopia among children 6 to 72 months of age.
  
  
  METHODS
  Population-based cross-sectional study.
  
  
  METHODS
  Population-based samples of 9970 children 6 to 72 months of age from Los Angeles County, California, and Baltimore, Maryland.
  
  
  METHODS
  Participants were preschool African-American, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic white children (n = 9770) from Los Angeles, California, and Baltimore, Maryland. Parental questionnaires and a comprehensive eye examination were administered. Demographic, behavioral, and clinical risk factors associated with hyperopia (≥2.00 diopters [D]) and myopia (≤-1.00 D) were determined.
  
  
  METHODS
  Odds ratios (ORs) for risk factors associated with myopia and hyperopia.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Compared with non-Hispanic whites, African-American (OR, 6.0) and Hispanic (OR, 3.2) children were more likely to be myopic. Children 6 to 35 months of age were more likely to be myopic compared with those 60 to 72 months of age (OR, ≥1.7). Compared with African-American children, non-Hispanic white (OR, 1.63) and Hispanic (OR, 1.49) children were more likely to be hyperopic. Children whose parents had health insurance (OR, 1.5) and those with a history of maternal smoking during pregnancy (OR, 1.4) were more likely to have hyperopia. Astigmatism of 1.5 D or more at any axis was associated with myopia (OR, 4.37) and hyperopia (OR, 1.43).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Children in specific racial or ethnic groups and age groups are at higher risk of having myopia and hyperopia. Cessation of maternal smoking during pregnancy may reduce the risk of hyperopia in these children. Given that both myopia and hyperopia are risk factors for the development of amblyopia and strabismus, these risk factors should be considered when developing guidelines for screening and intervention in preschool children.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  The author(s) have no proprietary or commercial interest in any materials discussed in this article.
authors.affiliation: Doheny Eye Institute and the Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
authors.forename: Mark S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Borchert
authors.forename: Rohit
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Varma
authors.forename: Susan A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Cotter
authors.forename: Kristina
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Tarczy-Hornoch
authors.forename: Roberta
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: McKean-Cowdin
authors.forename: Jesse H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Lin
authors.forename: Ge
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Wen
authors.forename: Stanley P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Azen
authors.forename: Mina
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Torres
authors.forename: James M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Tielsch
authors.forename: David S
authors.initials: DS
authors.lastname: Friedman
authors.forename: Michael X
authors.initials: MX
authors.lastname: Repka
authors.forename: Joanne
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Katz
authors.forename: Josephine
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Ibironke
authors.forename: Lydia
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Giordano
mesh_terms: D001741:Black or African American / Q000208:ethnology*; D017677:Age Distribution; D015142:Baltimore / Q000453:epidemiology; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003941:Diagnostic Techniques, Ophthalmological; D005006:Ethnicity; D006630:Hispanic or Latino / Q000208:ethnology*; D006801:Humans; D006956:Hyperopia / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000208:ethnology*; D007223:Infant; D015141:Los Angeles / Q000453:epidemiology; D009216:Myopia / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000208:ethnology*; D016017:Odds Ratio; D012307:Risk Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D044465:White People / Q000208:ethnology*