title: Literacy outcomes of children with early childhood speech sound disorders: impact of endophenotypes.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To demonstrate that early childhood speech sound disorders (SSD) and later school-age reading, written expression, and spelling skills are influenced by shared endophenotypes that may be in part genetic.
  
  
  METHODS
  Children with SSD and their siblings were assessed at early childhood (ages 4-6 years) and followed at school age (7-12 years). The relationship of shared endophenotypes with early childhood SSD and school-age outcomes and the shared genetic influences on these outcomes were examined.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Structural equation modeling demonstrated that oral motor skills, phonological awareness, phonological memory, vocabulary, and speeded naming have varying influences on reading decoding, spelling, spoken language, and written expression at school age. Genetic linkage studies demonstrated linkage for reading, spelling, and written expression measures to regions on chromosomes 1, 3, 6, and 15 that were previously linked to oral motor skills, articulation, phonological memory, and vocabulary at early childhood testing.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Endophenotypes predict school-age literacy outcomes over and above that predicted by clinical diagnoses of SSD or language impairment. Findings suggest that these shared endophenotypes and common genetic influences affect early childhood SSD and later school-age reading, spelling, spoken language, and written expression skills.
authors.affiliation: Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA. bxl@case.edu
authors.forename: Barbara A
authors.initials: BA
authors.lastname: Lewis
authors.forename: Allison A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Avrich
authors.forename: Lisa A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Freebairn
authors.forename: Amy J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Hansen
authors.forename: Lara E
authors.initials: LE
authors.lastname: Sucheston
authors.forename: Iris
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Kuo
authors.forename: H Gerry
authors.initials: HG
authors.lastname: Taylor
authors.forename: Sudha K
authors.initials: SK
authors.lastname: Iyengar
authors.forename: Catherine M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Stein
mesh_terms: D001184:Articulation Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics* / Q000534:rehabilitation; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D004410:Dyslexia / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics / Q000534:rehabilitation; D004493:Education; D058068:Endophenotypes; D005260:Female; D008040:Genetic Linkage; D020022:Genetic Predisposition to Disease / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008568:Memory / Q000502:physiology; D009048:Motor Skills / Q000502:physiology; D010700:Phonetics; D011932:Reading; D012307:Risk Factors; D035781:Siblings; D013060:Speech / Q000502:physiology; D013064:Speech Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics* / Q000534:rehabilitation; D013068:Speech Production Measurement