title: Using physical models to study the gliding performance of extinct animals.
abstract: Aerodynamic studies using physical models of fossil organisms can provide quantitative information about how performance of defined activities, such as gliding, depends on specific morphological features. Such analyses allow us to rule out hypotheses about the function of extinct organisms that are not physically plausible and to determine if and how specific morphological features and postures affect performance. The purpose of this article is to provide a practical guide for the design of dynamically scaled physical models to study the gliding of extinct animals using examples from our research on the theropod dinosaur, †Microraptor gui, which had flight feathers on its hind limbs as well as on its forelimbs. Analysis of the aerodynamics of †M. gui can shed light on the design of gliders with large surfaces posterior to the center of mass and provide functional information to evolutionary biologists trying to unravel the origins of flight in the dinosaurian ancestors and sister groups to birds. Measurements of lift, drag, side force, and moments in pitch, roll, and yaw on models in a wind tunnel can be used to calculate indices of gliding and parachuting performance, aerodynamic static stability, and control effectiveness in maneuvering. These indices permit the aerodynamic performance of bodies of different shape, size, stiffness, texture, and posture to be compared and thus can provide insights about the design of gliders, both biological and man-made. Our measurements of maximum lift-to-drag ratios of 2.5-3.1 for physical models of †M. gui suggest that its gliding performance was similar to that of flying squirrels and that the various leg postures that might have been used by †M. gui make little difference to that aspect of aerodynamic performance. We found that body orientation relative to the movement of air past the animal determines whether it is difficult or easy to maneuver.
authors.affiliation: Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, CA 94720-3140, USA. cnidaria@berkeley.edu
authors.forename: M A R
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Koehl
authors.forename: Dennis
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Evangelista
authors.forename: Karen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Yang
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D049628:Body Size; D025061:Dinosaurs / Q000502:physiology*; D053476:Extinction, Biological; D005426:Flight, Animal; D005580:Fossils; D023421:Models, Animal; D009949:Orientation; D011187:Posture; D014919:Wind