title: Raw sewage harbors diverse viral populations.
abstract: At this time, about 3,000 different viruses are recognized, but metagenomic studies suggest that these viruses are a small fraction of the viruses that exist in nature. We have explored viral diversity by deep sequencing nucleic acids obtained from virion populations enriched from raw sewage. We identified 234 known viruses, including 17 that infect humans. Plant, insect, and algal viruses as well as bacteriophages were also present. These viruses represented 26 taxonomic families and included viruses with single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), positive-sense ssRNA [ssRNA(+)], and dsRNA genomes. Novel viruses that could be placed in specific taxa represented 51 different families, making untreated wastewater the most diverse viral metagenome (genetic material recovered directly from environmental samples) examined thus far. However, the vast majority of sequence reads bore little or no sequence relation to known viruses and thus could not be placed into specific taxa. These results show that the vast majority of the viruses on Earth have not yet been characterized. Untreated wastewater provides a rich matrix for identifying novel viruses and for studying virus diversity.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  At this time, virology is focused on the study of a relatively small number of viral species. Specific viruses are studied either because they are easily propagated in the laboratory or because they are associated with disease. The lack of knowledge of the size and characteristics of the viral universe and the diversity of viral genomes is a roadblock to understanding important issues, such as the origin of emerging pathogens and the extent of gene exchange among viruses. Untreated wastewater is an ideal system for assessing viral diversity because virion populations from large numbers of individuals are deposited and because raw sewage itself provides a rich environment for the growth of diverse host species and thus their viruses. These studies suggest that the viral universe is far more vast and diverse than previously suspected.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
authors.forename: Paul G
authors.initials: PG
authors.lastname: Cantalupo
authors.forename: Byron
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Calgua
authors.forename: Guoyan
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Zhao
authors.forename: Ayalkibet
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hundesa
authors.forename: Adam D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Wier
authors.forename: Josh P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Katz
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Grabe
authors.forename: Roger W
authors.initials: RW
authors.lastname: Hendrix
authors.forename: Rosina
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Girones
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: James M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Pipas
mesh_terms: D044822:Biodiversity; D016679:Genome, Viral; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D010802:Phylogeny; D012722:Sewage / Q000821:virology*; D014780:Viruses / Q000145:classification* / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*
chemical_list: D012722:Sewage