title: Determinants of arterial gas embolism after scuba diving.
abstract: Scuba diving is associated with breathing gas at increased pressure, which often leads to tissue gas supersaturation during ascent and the formation of venous gas emboli (VGE). VGE crossover to systemic arteries (arterialization), mostly through the patent foramen ovale, has been implicated in various diving-related pathologies. Since recent research has shown that arterializations frequently occur in the absence of cardiac septal defects, our aim was to investigate the mechanisms responsible for these events. Divers who tested negative for patent foramen ovale were subjected to laboratory testing where agitated saline contrast bubbles were injected in the cubital vein at rest and exercise. The individual propensity for transpulmonary bubble passage was evaluated echocardiographically. The same subjects performed a standard air dive followed by an echosonographic assessment of VGE generation (graded on a scale of 0-5) and distribution. Twenty-three of thirty-four subjects allowed the transpulmonary passage of saline contrast bubbles in the laboratory at rest or after a mild/moderate exercise, and nine of them arterialized after a field dive. All subjects with postdive arterialization had bubble loads reaching or exceeding grade 4B in the right heart. In individuals without transpulmonary passage of saline contrast bubbles, injected either at rest or after an exercise bout, no postdive arterialization was detected. Therefore, postdive VGE arterialization occurs in subjects that meet two criteria: 1) transpulmonary shunting of contrast bubbles at rest or at mild/moderate exercise and 2) VGE generation after a dive reaches the threshold grade. These findings may represent a novel concept in approach to diving, where diving routines will be tailored individually.
authors: Department of Physiology, University of Split School of Medicine, University Hospital Split, Split, Croatia. marko.ljubkovic@mefst.hr
authors: Marko
authors: M
authors: Ljubkovic
authors: Jaksa
authors: J
authors: Zanchi
authors: Toni
authors: T
authors: Breskovic
authors: Jasna
authors: J
authors: Marinovic
authors: Mihajlo
authors: M
authors: Lojpur
authors: Zeljko
authors: Z
authors: Dujic
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001784:Blood Gas Analysis / Q000379:methods; D004242:Diving / Q000502:physiology*; D004618:Embolism, Air / Q000097:blood* / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D015444:Exercise / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012129:Respiratory Function Tests / Q000379:methods; D012146:Rest / Q000502:physiology*; D014463:Ultrasonography; D055815:Young Adult