title: Sympathetic nervous system:  role in hypertension and in chronic kidney disease.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  A number of cardiovascular disease have been shown to be characterized by a marked increase in sympathetic drive to the heart and peripheral circulation. This is the case for essential hypertension, congestive heart failure, obesity, metabolic syndrome and chronic renal failure. This review focuses on the most recent findings documenting the role of sympathetic neural factors in the development and progression of the hypertensive state as well as of target organ damage. It also reviews the participation of sympathetic neural factors in the development of the earlier stages of renal failure.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A marked increase in sympathetic neural discharge, as assessed via the microneurographic technique, has been shown to occur in the predialytic stage of chronic renal failure. Recent evidence, however, indicates that also in the earlier clinical phases of kidney disease, sympathetic activation is detectable. Further data show that sympathetic neural mechanisms participate in renal and/or hypertensive disease progression, favouring the development of target organ damage. Finally, recent findings indicate that the metabolic disarray frequently complicating the high blood pressure state (metabolic syndrome, dislipidemia, insulin resistance) may have as pathophysiological background a sympathetic overdrive. Altogether these data represent the rationale for employing in hypertension (and particularly in resistant hypertension) therapeutic interventions such as carotid baroreceptor stimulation and renal denervation, capable of exerting sympathoinhibitory effects.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The sympathetic nervous system represents a major pathophysiological hallmark of both hypertension and renal failure and is an important target for the therapeutic intervention.
authors.affiliation: Clinica Medica, Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica, Prevenzione e Biotecnologie Sanitarie, Università Milano-Bicocca, Ospedale San Gerardo, Monza (Milan), Italy. guido.grassi@unimib.it
authors.forename: Guido
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Grassi
authors.forename: Silvio
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bertoli
authors.forename: Gino
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Seravalle
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D017704:Baroreflex; D002319:Cardiovascular System / Q000294:innervation*; D002908:Chronic Disease; D004599:Electric Stimulation Therapy; D020022:Genetic Predisposition to Disease; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000628:therapy; D007668:Kidney / Q000294:innervation*; D007674:Kidney Diseases / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000628:therapy; D018377:Neurotransmitter Agents / Q000378:metabolism; D010641:Phenotype; D013562:Sympathectomy; D013564:Sympathetic Nervous System / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology*
chemical_list: D018377:Neurotransmitter Agents