title: Virus hazards from food, water and other contaminated environments.
abstract: Numerous viruses of human or animal origin can spread in the environment and infect people via water and food, mostly through ingestion and occasionally through skin contact. These viruses are released into the environment by various routes including water run-offs and aerosols. Furthermore, zoonotic viruses may infect humans exposed to contaminated surface waters. Foodstuffs of animal origin can be contaminated, and their consumption may cause human infection if the viruses are not inactivated during food processing. Molecular epidemiology and surveillance of environmental samples are necessary to elucidate the public health hazards associated with exposure to environmental viruses. Whereas monitoring of viral nucleic acids by PCR methods is relatively straightforward and well documented, detection of infectious virus particles is technically more demanding and not always possible (e.g. human norovirus or hepatitis E virus). The human pathogenic viruses that are most relevant in this context are nonenveloped and belong to the families of the Caliciviridae, Adenoviridae, Hepeviridae, Picornaviridae and Reoviridae. Sampling methods and strategies, first-choice detection methods and evaluation criteria are reviewed.
authors.affiliation: Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla y León (ITACyL), Valladolid, Spain.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Rodríguez-Lázaro
authors.forename: Nigel
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Cook
authors.forename: Franco M
authors.initials: FM
authors.lastname: Ruggeri
authors.forename: Jane
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Sellwood
authors.forename: Abid
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Nasser
authors.forename: Maria Sao Jose
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Nascimento
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: D'Agostino
authors.forename: Ricardo
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Santos
authors.forename: Juan Carlos
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Saiz
authors.forename: Artur
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Rzeżutka
authors.forename: Albert
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Bosch
authors.forename: Rosina
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Gironés
authors.forename: Annalaura
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Carducci
authors.forename: Michelle
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Muscillo
authors.forename: Katarina
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kovač
authors.forename: Marta
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Diez-Valcarce
authors.forename: Apostolos
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Vantarakis
authors.forename: Carl-Henrik
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: von Bonsdorff
authors.forename: Ana Maria
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: de Roda Husman
authors.forename: Marta
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hernández
authors.forename: Wim H M
authors.initials: WH
authors.lastname: van der Poel
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004783:Environmental Microbiology; D005502:Food / Q000821:virology*; D005506:Food Contamination; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000821:virology*; D006801:Humans; D014777:Virus Diseases / Q000821:virology*; D014780:Viruses / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*
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