title: Changing trends in mastitis.
abstract: The global dairy industry, the predominant pathogens causing mastitis, our understanding of mastitis pathogens and the host response to intramammary infection are changing rapidly. This paper aims to discuss changes in each of these aspects. Globalisation, energy demands, human population growth and climate change all affect the dairy industry. In many western countries, control programs for contagious mastitis have been in place for decades, resulting in a decrease in occurrence of Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus mastitis and an increase in the relative impact of Streptococcus uberis and Escherichia coli mastitis. In some countries, Klebsiella spp. or Streptococcus dysgalactiae are appearing as important causes of mastitis. Differences between countries in legislation, veterinary and laboratory services and farmers' management practices affect the distribution and impact of mastitis pathogens. For pathogens that have traditionally been categorised as contagious, strain adaptation to human and bovine hosts has been recognised. For pathogens that are often categorised as environmental, strains causing transient and chronic infections are distinguished. The genetic basis underlying host adaptation and mechanisms of infection is being unravelled. Genomic information on pathogens and their hosts and improved knowledge of the host's innate and acquired immune responses to intramammary infections provide opportunities to expand our understanding of bovine mastitis. These developments will undoubtedly contribute to novel approaches to mastitis diagnostics and control.
authors.affiliation: Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, EH26 0PZ Scotland, UK. ruth.zadoks@moredun.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Rn
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Zadoks
authors.forename: Jl
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Fitzpatrick
references.citation: Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd. 2006 Aug;148(8):387-95
references.pmid: 16933702
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2008 Mar;91(3):1236-44
references.pmid: 18292282
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 2004 Aug 19;102(1-2):33-42
references.pmid: 15288925
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2004 Sep;42(9):4214-22
references.pmid: 15365014
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 1969 May;52(5):689-95
references.pmid: 5391702
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2007 Feb 24;160(8):253-7
references.pmid: 17322356
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2002 Oct;85(10):2512-20
references.pmid: 12416803
references.citation: J Trop Pediatr. 1998 Oct;44(5):304-7
references.pmid: 9819496
references.citation: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1990 Apr 15;196(8):1230-5
references.pmid: 2110123
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2007 Dec;45(12):3964-71
references.pmid: 17928424
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008 Jan;74(1):114-24
references.pmid: 18024686
references.citation: Res Vet Sci. 1990 Jul;49(1):85-7
references.pmid: 2382062
references.citation: Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 2008 Feb 1;133(3):96-101
references.pmid: 18309823
references.citation: Anim Genet. 2003 Apr;34(2):116-23
references.pmid: 12648094
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 1969 May;52(5):696-707
references.pmid: 5391057
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2005 Aug 27;157(9):245-50
references.pmid: 16127133
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2002 Aug 24;151(8):241-3
references.pmid: 12219902
references.citation: Anim Genet. 1992;23(6):533-6
references.pmid: 1492705
references.citation: Proc Nutr Soc. 2000 Feb;59(1):135-46
references.pmid: 10828183
references.citation: J Dairy Res. 1993 Feb;60(1):31-41
references.pmid: 8436665
references.citation: Nord Vet Med. 1982 Dec;34(12):441-50
references.pmid: 6761644
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2006 Jun;89(6):1938-50
references.pmid: 16702257
references.citation: Vet Res. 1998 Nov-Dec;29(6):497-510
references.pmid: 9851006
references.citation: J Proteome Res. 2007 Jan;6(1):207-15
references.pmid: 17203965
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 2007 Jan 31;119(2-4):240-7
references.pmid: 17046180
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2006 Mar;89(3):1010-23
references.pmid: 16507696
references.citation: J Dairy Res. 2008 Feb;75(1):113-20
references.pmid: 18226298
references.citation: Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2004 May;11(3):463-72
references.pmid: 15138171
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 1998 Sep;81 Suppl 2:19-35
references.pmid: 9777509
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2004 May;42(5):2161-7
references.pmid: 15131184
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2004 Dec;87(12):4150-62
references.pmid: 15545377
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995 May 9;92(10):4259-63
references.pmid: 7753793
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2000 May;38(5):1931-9
references.pmid: 10790124
references.citation: Trop Anim Health Prod. 2000 Feb;32(1):23-31
references.pmid: 10717941
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2007 Aug;90(8):3961-79
references.pmid: 17639008
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2004 Aug;10(8):1412-9
references.pmid: 15496242
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 1998 Sep;81(9):2510-7
references.pmid: 9785243
references.citation: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2005 Nov 1;227(9):1461-8
references.pmid: 16279392
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 2009 Feb 16;134(1-2):20-8
references.pmid: 18930607
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 1996 Mar;79(3):396-401
references.pmid: 8708100
references.citation: Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 2003 Mar;19(1):199-221
references.pmid: 12682943
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2006 Feb;72(2):1429-36
references.pmid: 16461696
references.citation: Vet Res. 2004 Nov-Dec;35(6):681-700
references.pmid: 15535958
references.citation: Vet Res. 2008 May-Jun;39(3):23
references.pmid: 18252189
references.citation: Prev Vet Med. 2000 Jul 3;46(1):29-50
references.pmid: 10854934
references.citation: Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 2006 Mar;22(1):21-33
references.pmid: 16517294
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2008 Jan 15;197(2):205-13
references.pmid: 18177250
references.citation: PLoS One. 2007 Oct 31;2(10):e1120
references.pmid: 17971880
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2007 Aug;90(8):3986-92
references.pmid: 17639010
references.citation: Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 2007 Mar 15;132(6):200-4
references.pmid: 17436810
references.citation: J Dairy Res. 2007 Nov;74(4):478-83
references.pmid: 17931457
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 1998 Aug;81(8):2280-92
references.pmid: 9749395
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 2002 May 15;155(10):949-57
references.pmid: 11994235
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Jul 12;102(28):9984-9
references.pmid: 15985558
references.citation: Ambio. 2005 Jun;34(4-5):311-5
references.pmid: 16092261
references.citation: J Appl Microbiol. 2000 Jun;88(6):1028-37
references.pmid: 10849179
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2007 Feb;90(2):766-78
references.pmid: 17235154
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2005 Mar;43(3):1177-86
references.pmid: 15750080
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2005 Sep;43(9):4737-43
references.pmid: 16145135
references.citation: J Appl Genet. 2007;48(3):189-98
references.pmid: 17666771
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 2009 Feb 16;134(1-2):157-64
references.pmid: 18930606
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2007 Aug;90(8):3681-9
references.pmid: 17638979
references.citation: Vet Res. 2000 Jul-Aug;31(4):397-412
references.pmid: 10958241
references.citation: Nature. 2005 Nov 17;438(7066):310-7
references.pmid: 16292302
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2000 Jun;83(6):1248-55
references.pmid: 10877390
references.citation: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998 Feb 15;212(4):553-6
references.pmid: 9491165
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 2003 Apr;130(2):335-49
references.pmid: 12729202
references.citation: J Anim Sci. 2009 Apr;87(13 Suppl):43-55
references.pmid: 18820158
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 1990 Sep;73(9):2538-46
references.pmid: 2258497
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 2000 Jul 3;75(1):27-41
references.pmid: 10865150
references.citation: J Dairy Res. 2009 Feb;76(1):6-14
references.pmid: 18922194
references.citation: J Vet Sci. 2005 Sep;6(3):247-50
references.pmid: 16131830
references.citation: Am J Phys Anthropol. 2000 Jan;111(1):89-104
references.pmid: 10618590
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2007 May;90(5):2419-26
references.pmid: 17430946
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 1997 Oct;119(2):261-9
references.pmid: 9363026
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2006 Jul;89(7):2542-51
references.pmid: 16772573
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2006 Sep;89(9):3615-25
references.pmid: 16899697
references.citation: Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 2001 Nov;17(3):495-516, vi
references.pmid: 11692505
references.citation: Infect Immun. 1994 Dec;62(12):5641-6
references.pmid: 7960146
references.citation: Am J Vet Res. 1997 May;58(5):482-7
references.pmid: 9140555
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2007 Feb;90(2):760-5
references.pmid: 17235153
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 1999 Jan;82(1):80-5
references.pmid: 10022009
references.citation: Vet J. 2006 Jul;172(1):52-7
references.pmid: 16772131
references.citation: Microbes Infect. 2005 Mar;7(3):560-8
references.pmid: 15777742
references.citation: Ann Epidemiol. 2000 Oct 1;10(7):472
references.pmid: 11018407
references.citation: Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 1987 Jun 1;112(11):653-9
references.pmid: 3299869
references.citation: Acta Vet Scand. 1998;39(1):119-26
references.pmid: 9592952
references.citation: BMJ. 2005 Apr 16;330(7496):858-9
references.pmid: 15831850
references.citation: J Food Prot. 1982 Oct;45(12):1125-1128
references.pmid: 30913711
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 1997 Oct;80(10):2592-8
references.pmid: 9361234
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 2000 Jun 12;74(4):331-43
references.pmid: 10831855
references.citation: J Anim Sci. 2009 Apr;87(13 Suppl):10-25
references.pmid: 18708595
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 1998 Feb;81(2):411-9
references.pmid: 9532494
references.citation: Prev Vet Med. 2003 Jun 12;59(3):169-80
references.pmid: 12809761
references.citation: Vet Res. 2006 May-Jun;37(3):369-400
references.pmid: 16611554
references.citation: Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2004 Aug;100(3-4):145-9
references.pmid: 15207452
references.citation: Microb Pathog. 2006 Jun;40(6):279-85
references.pmid: 16678381
references.citation: Acta Vet Scand. 2002;43(4):221-30
references.pmid: 12831175
references.citation: Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2005 Jan 10;103(1-2):53-65
references.pmid: 15626461
references.citation: Prev Vet Med. 2006 Apr 17;74(1):84-98
references.pmid: 16488030
references.citation: N Z Vet J. 2003 Jun;51(3):111-6
references.pmid: 16032309
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2003 Apr;86(4):1233-9
references.pmid: 12741548
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2006 May;89(5):1822-9
references.pmid: 16606754
references.citation: Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 1993 Mar;36(2):137-51
references.pmid: 8097346
references.citation: J Anim Breed Genet. 2008 Apr;125(2):110-8
references.pmid: 18363976
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2002 Nov;40(11):3894-902
references.pmid: 12409348
references.citation: Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 2006 Mar;22(1):229-61
references.pmid: 16517304
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2007 Oct;90(10):4643-53
references.pmid: 17881685
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2006 Jul;89(7):2799-804
references.pmid: 16772599
references.citation: Vet J. 1999 May;157(3):225-38
references.pmid: 10328836
references.citation: Vet Res. 2002 Jan-Feb;33(1):1-12
references.pmid: 11873813
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 1995 Feb;33(2):376-80
references.pmid: 7714195
references.citation: Infect Immun. 2003 Jan;71(1):132-9
references.pmid: 12496158
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2004 Jul;87(7):2062-72
references.pmid: 15328218
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2000 Sep;83(9):1957-65
references.pmid: 11003224
references.citation: Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 2006 Jan 1;131(1):2-4
references.pmid: 16430158
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 2002 Jan 15;155(2):103-14
references.pmid: 11790672
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2005 Dec;43(12):5899-906
references.pmid: 16333073
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2007 Dec;13(12):1834-9
references.pmid: 18258032
references.citation: Vet Rec. 1989 Dec 9;125(24):591-3
references.pmid: 2514481
references.citation: J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health. 2005 May;52(4):153-60
references.pmid: 16000109
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2004 May 22;154(21):671-2
references.pmid: 15198320
references.citation: BMC Infect Dis. 2008 Apr 18;8:51
references.pmid: 18423017
references.citation: J Dairy Res. 1995 Feb;62(1):39-50
references.pmid: 7738244
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2006 Sep;89(9):3425-30
references.pmid: 16899675
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2006 Feb;72(2):1420-8
references.pmid: 16461695
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2002 Sep;85(9):2352-7
references.pmid: 12362468
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2007 Oct;90(10):4661-9
references.pmid: 17881687
references.citation: Biochem Genet. 2004 Apr;42(3-4):99-108
references.pmid: 15168723
references.citation: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1987 Dec 15;191(12):1556-61
references.pmid: 3319987
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2002 Mar 30;150(13):411-3
references.pmid: 11999279
references.citation: Vaccine. 2004 Nov 15;23(1):114-26
references.pmid: 15519714
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2007 Dec;90(12):5558-66
references.pmid: 18024747
references.citation: Anim Reprod Sci. 2006 Dec;96(3-4):331-53
references.pmid: 16979858
references.citation: J Am Diet Assoc. 2008 Jul;108(7):1198-203
references.pmid: 18589029
references.citation: J Bacteriol. 2008 Jan;190(1):300-10
references.pmid: 17951380
references.citation: Acta Vet Scand. 2006 Jul 17;48:11
references.pmid: 16987390
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2008 Nov;91(11):4206-18
references.pmid: 18946125
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2006 Jun;89(6):1877-95
references.pmid: 16702252
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2007 Mar 3;160(9):287-93
references.pmid: 17337605
references.citation: Mol Ecol. 2004 Nov;13(11):3477-87
references.pmid: 15488005
references.citation: J Dairy Res. 2007 Nov;74(4):484-91
references.pmid: 17922933
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 2009 Feb 16;134(1-2):1-2
references.pmid: 18950968
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2006 Apr;89(4):1267-79
references.pmid: 16537959
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2002 Jul 2;212(2):187-92
references.pmid: 12113933
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Jul 15;105(28):9668-73
references.pmid: 18591660
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2007 Sep 29;161(13):452-3
references.pmid: 17906227
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2002 Sep;85(9):2149-54
references.pmid: 12362446
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 2001 May 21;80(2):131-8
references.pmid: 11295333
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2004 Jan;42(1):83-9
references.pmid: 14715736
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2004 Oct;87(10):3125-31
references.pmid: 15377590
references.citation: Vet Microbiol. 2006 Sep 10;116(4):270-82
references.pmid: 16787715
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2001 May;39(5):1845-9
references.pmid: 11326001
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2006 Apr;89(4):1349-61
references.pmid: 16537966
references.citation: Infect Immun. 2001 Jan;69(1):45-51
references.pmid: 11119487
references.citation: Br Vet J. 1984 Jul-Aug;140(4):328-35
references.pmid: 6466955
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2007 Apr;13(4):630-2
references.pmid: 17553285
references.citation: J Dairy Sci. 2007 Mar;90(3):1176-85
references.pmid: 17297092