title: Spironolactone and colitis: increased mortality in rodents and in humans.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Crohn's disease causes intestinal inflammation leading to intestinal fibrosis. Spironolactone is an antifibrotic medication commonly used in heart failure to reduce mortality. We examined whether spironolactone is antifibrotic in the context of intestinal inflammation.
  
  
  METHODS
  In vitro, spironolactone repressed fibrogenesis in transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β)-stimulated human colonic myofibroblasts. However, spironolactone therapy significantly increased mortality in two rodent models of inflammation-induced intestinal fibrosis, suggesting spironolactone could be harmful during intestinal inflammation. Since inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients rarely receive spironolactone therapy, we examined whether spironolactone use was associated with mortality in a common cause of inflammatory colitis, Clostridium difficile infection (CDI).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Spironolactone use during CDI infection was associated with increased mortality in a retrospective cohort of 4008 inpatients (15.9% vs. 9.1%, n = 390 deaths, P < 0.0001). In patients without liver disease, the adjusted odds ratio (OR) for inpatient mortality associated with 80 mg spironolactone was 1.99 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.51-2.63) In contrast to the main effect of spironolactone mortality, multivariate modeling revealed a protective interaction between liver disease and spironolactone dose. The adjusted OR for mortality after CDI was 1.96 (95% CI: 1.50-2.55) for patients without liver disease on spironolactone vs. 1.28 (95% CI: 0.82-2.00) for patients with liver disease on spironolactone when compared to a reference group without liver disease or spironolactone use.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We propose that discontinuation of spironolactone in patients without liver disease during CDI could reduce hospital mortality by 2-fold, potentially reducing mortality from CDI by 35,000 patients annually across Europe and the U.S.
authors.affiliation: University of Michigan, Department of Internal Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-0682, USA.
authors.forename: Laura A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.forename: Shail M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Govani
authors.forename: Joel C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Joyce
authors.forename: Akbar K
authors.initials: AK
authors.lastname: Waljee
authors.forename: Brenda W
authors.initials: BW
authors.lastname: Gillespie
authors.forename: Peter D R
authors.initials: PD
authors.lastname: Higgins
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D016360:Clostridioides difficile / Q000472:pathogenicity; D003015:Clostridium Infections / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000382:microbiology / Q000401:mortality; D003092:Colitis / Q000150:complications / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000401:mortality*; D003424:Crohn Disease / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000382:microbiology / Q000401:mortality*; D005260:Female; D005355:Fibrosis / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000209:etiology / Q000401:mortality*; D006760:Hospitalization; D006801:Humans; D007249:Inflammation / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000209:etiology / Q000401:mortality*; D007410:Intestinal Diseases / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000401:mortality* / Q000473:pathology; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D000451:Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonists / Q000627:therapeutic use; D058628:Myofibroblasts / Q000166:cytology / Q000378:metabolism; D051381:Rats; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D013148:Spironolactone / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D015996:Survival Rate; D016212:Transforming Growth Factor beta / Q000494:pharmacology; D014302:Trinitrobenzenesulfonic Acid / Q000633:toxicity
chemical_list: D000451:Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonists; D016212:Transforming Growth Factor beta; D013148:Spironolactone; D014302:Trinitrobenzenesulfonic Acid
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