title: Evolution and connectivity in the world-wide migration system of the mallard: inferences from mitochondrial DNA.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Main waterfowl migration systems are well understood through ringing activities. However, in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) ringing studies suggest deviations from general migratory trends and traditions in waterfowl. Furthermore, surprisingly little is known about the population genetic structure of mallards, and studying it may yield insight into the spread of diseases such as Avian Influenza, and in management and conservation of wetlands. The study of evolution of genetic diversity and subsequent partitioning thereof during the last glaciation adds to ongoing discussions on the general evolution of waterfowl populations and flyway evolution. Hypothesised mallard flyways are tested explicitly by analysing mitochondrial mallard DNA from the whole northern hemisphere.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Phylogenetic analyses confirm two mitochondrial mallard clades. Genetic differentiation within Eurasia and North-America is low, on a continental scale, but large differences occur between these two land masses (F(ST) = 0.51). Half the genetic variance lies within sampling locations, and a negligible portion between currently recognised waterfowl flyways, within Eurasia and North-America. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) at continent scale, incorporating sampling localities as smallest units, also shows the absence of population structure on the flyway level. Finally, demographic modelling by coalescence simulation proposes a split between Eurasia and North-America 43,000 to 74,000 years ago and strong population growth (~100fold) since then and little migration (not statistically different from zero).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Based on this first complete assessment of the mallard's world-wide population genetic structure we confirm that no more than two mtDNA clades exist. Clade A is characteristic for Eurasia, and clade B for North-America although some representatives of clade A are also found in North-America. We explain this pattern by evaluating competing hypotheses and conclude that a complex mix of historical, recent and anthropogenic factors shaped the current mallard populations. We refute population classification based on flyways proposed by ornithologists and managers, because they seem to have little biological meaning. Our results have implications for wetland management and conservation, with special regard to the release of farmed mallards for hunting, as well as for the possible transmission of Avian Influenza by mallards due to migration.
authors.affiliation: Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands. robert.kraus@senckenberg.de
authors.forename: Robert H S
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Kraus
authors.forename: Anne
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Zeddeman
authors.forename: Pim
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: van Hooft
authors.forename: Dmitry
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Sartakov
authors.forename: Sergei A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Soloviev
authors.forename: Ronald C
authors.initials: RC
authors.lastname: Ydenberg
authors.forename: Herbert H T
authors.initials: HH
authors.lastname: Prins
mesh_terms: D025041:Animal Migration; D000818:Animals; D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial / Q000235:genetics; D004372:Ducks / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics*; D005260:Female; D051456:Gene Flow; D005828:Genetics, Population; D005843:Geography; D008297:Male; D010802:Phylogeny; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA
chemical_list: D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial
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