title: Macrophage-tumor crosstalk: role of TAMR tyrosine kinase receptors and of their ligands.
abstract: Ample clinical and preclinical evidence indicates that macrophages interact with tumor cells as well as with virtually all populations of host cells present in the tumor microenvironment. This crosstalk can strongly promote malignancy, but also has in principle the potential to inhibit tumor growth. Thus, it is of the utmost importance to improve our understanding of the mechanisms driving the pro- and antimalignant behavior of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) in order to develop better anticancer therapies. In this review, we discuss the biological consequences of reciprocal interactions between TAMs, cancer cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and other leukocyte subfractions within tumors. It was recently elucidated that tumors specifically educate macrophages to secrete growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6), the common ligand of the Tyro3, Axl, Mer receptor (TAMR) family. In turn, Gas6 fosters tumor growth by promoting cancer cell proliferation. Therefore, the Gas6-TAMR axis might represent a novel target for disrupting tumor-macrophage crosstalk. We summarize here what is known about TAMR and their ligands in (human) cancer biology. In order to shed more light on the role of macrophages in human cancer, we additionally provide an overview of what is currently known about the prognostic impact of TAMs in human cancer.
authors.affiliation: Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Schmidt
authors.forename: Isabel
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Ben-Batalla
authors.forename: Alexander
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Schultze
authors.forename: Sonja
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Loges
mesh_terms: D042783:Endothelial Cells / Q000473:pathology / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D005347:Fibroblasts / Q000473:pathology / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D036341:Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins / Q000502:physiology; D007962:Leukocytes / Q000473:pathology / Q000502:physiology; D008024:Ligands; D008264:Macrophages / Q000145:classification / Q000276:immunology / Q000473:pathology / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D008954:Models, Biological; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D011379:Prognosis; D017293:Protein S / Q000502:physiology; D020794:Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases / Q000502:physiology*; D059016:Tumor Microenvironment / Q000502:physiology*; D000099255:Growth Arrest-Specific Protein 6
chemical_list: D036341:Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins; D008024:Ligands; D017293:Protein S; D020794:Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases; D000099255:Growth Arrest-Specific Protein 6
references.citation: J Invest Dermatol. 2007 Feb;127(2):394-9
references.pmid: 16946712
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Oct 14;94(21):11484-9
references.pmid: 9326636
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 1993 Aug;13(8):4976-85
references.pmid: 8336730
references.citation: PLoS One. 2009 Sep 17;4(9):e7067
references.pmid: 19759906
references.citation: Oncogene. 1994 Mar;9(3):975-9
references.pmid: 8108143
references.citation: J Immunol. 2010 Jan 15;184(2):702-12
references.pmid: 20018620
references.citation: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000 Jun;105(6 Pt 1):1063-70
references.pmid: 10856136
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 2010 Feb;176(2):952-67
references.pmid: 20042677
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Sep 1;106(35):14978-83
references.pmid: 19706447
references.citation: Blood. 2008 Apr 15;111(8):4096-105
references.pmid: 18156494
references.citation: J Invest Dermatol. 2011 Jan;131(1):229-36
references.pmid: 20827282
references.citation: Cancer Cell. 2005 Sep;8(3):211-26
references.pmid: 16169466
references.citation: Cell. 2006 Feb 10;124(3):615-29
references.pmid: 16469706
references.citation: Cell. 2004 Aug 6;118(3):285-96
references.pmid: 15294155
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Oct 6;106(40):17025-30
references.pmid: 19805117
references.citation: Cancer Cell. 2011 Apr 12;19(4):512-26
references.pmid: 21481792
references.citation: Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2011 Feb;21(1):73-9
references.pmid: 21106363
references.citation: Blood. 2011 Feb 10;117(6):1928-37
references.pmid: 21135257
references.citation: Haematologica. 2007 May;92(5):643-50
references.pmid: 17488688
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1994 Jan 21;269(3):1839-44
references.pmid: 7507487
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2006 Dec 1;66(23):11432-40
references.pmid: 17145890
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2001 Mar 19;193(6):727-40
references.pmid: 11257139
references.citation: Annu Rev Pathol. 2006;1:119-50
references.pmid: 18039110
references.citation: Blood. 2009 Sep 24;114(13):2678-87
references.pmid: 19643988
references.citation: Nature. 2001 May 10;411(6834):207-11
references.pmid: 11346799
references.citation: Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2011 Jun;10(6):417-27
references.pmid: 21629292
references.citation: Cancer Biol Ther. 2010 Jul 15;10(2):144-54
references.pmid: 20495367
references.citation: Nature. 2010 Jun 10;465(7299):697-9
references.pmid: 20535192
references.citation: Cancer Lett. 2008 Sep 18;268(2):314-24
references.pmid: 18502572
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2008 May;8(5):327-36
references.pmid: 18421305
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2007 May;117(5):1155-66
references.pmid: 17476345
references.citation: Adv Cancer Res. 2008;100:35-83
references.pmid: 18620092
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 2003 May;33(5):1311-20
references.pmid: 12731056
references.citation: Cancer Cell. 2009 Aug 4;16(2):91-102
references.pmid: 19647220
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2005 Feb;115(2):247-57
references.pmid: 15668734
references.citation: Cell. 2010 Apr 2;141(1):39-51
references.pmid: 20371344
references.citation: Neurosignals. 2009;17(4):277-87
references.pmid: 19816064
references.citation: Oncogene. 1995 Jun 15;10(12):2349-59
references.pmid: 7784083
references.citation: Cancer Cell. 2010 Feb 17;17(2):135-47
references.pmid: 20138012
references.citation: Br J Cancer. 2008 Oct 7;99(7):1013-9
references.pmid: 18797461
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2010 Aug;120(8):2699-714
references.pmid: 20644254
references.citation: Gynecol Oncol. 2008 Apr;109(1):122-8
references.pmid: 18289648
references.citation: Cancer Cell. 2009 Feb 3;15(2):91-102
references.pmid: 19185844
references.citation: Genes Cancer. 2010 Jan;1(1):12-25
references.pmid: 21779425
references.citation: Neuron. 1991 May;6(5):691-704
references.pmid: 2025425
references.citation: J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2006 Sep;25(3):365-72
references.pmid: 17167977
references.citation: Int J Dev Biol. 1996;Suppl 1:101S-102S
references.pmid: 9087716
references.citation: Clin Cancer Res. 2009 Jun 1;15(11):3648-53
references.pmid: 19470735
references.citation: Int J Cancer. 2010 Mar 15;126(6):1339-52
references.pmid: 19711348
references.citation: Nat Biotechnol. 2007 Aug;25(8):911-20
references.pmid: 17664940
references.citation: Eur Respir J. 2009 Jan;33(1):118-26
references.pmid: 19118225
references.citation: Oncogene. 1997 Nov 13;15(20):2387-97
references.pmid: 9395235
references.citation: Mol Vis. 2011;17:1485-92
references.pmid: 21677792
references.citation: Cell. 2010 Jun 25;141(7):1117-34
references.pmid: 20602996
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2008 Feb 15;68(4):1100-9
references.pmid: 18281485
references.citation: Oncogene. 1992 Jul;7(7):1287-93
references.pmid: 1320243
references.citation: Cell. 2006 Feb 24;124(4):823-35
references.pmid: 16497591
references.citation: Cancer Cell. 2008 Mar;13(3):206-20
references.pmid: 18328425
references.citation: J Clin Oncol. 2009 Jul 10;27(20):3330-7
references.pmid: 19528371
references.citation: Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004 Jun;24(6):1118-23
references.pmid: 15130911
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2010 Feb 15;70(4):1544-54
references.pmid: 20145120
references.citation: Blood. 2010 Apr 22;115(16):3390-7
references.pmid: 20139094
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2005 Feb;115(2):237-46
references.pmid: 15650770
references.citation: Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2001 Jun;280(6):L1273-81
references.pmid: 11350808
references.citation: Mol Cancer. 2010 Oct 14;9:273
references.pmid: 20946648
references.citation: Hepatology. 2010 Oct;52(4):1371-9
references.pmid: 20730776
references.citation: EMBO J. 2008 Jun 18;27(12):1671-81
references.pmid: 18511911
references.citation: PLoS One. 2009 Nov 23;4(11):e7965
references.pmid: 19956757
references.citation: J Cell Physiol. 2012 Apr;227(4):1291-7
references.pmid: 21520079
references.citation: Cell. 1988 Sep 9;54(6):787-93
references.pmid: 3409319
references.citation: Science. 2005 Jan 7;307(5706):58-62
references.pmid: 15637262
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2005 Dec 15;65(24):11743-51
references.pmid: 16357187
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2009 May 11;206(5):1089-102
references.pmid: 19398755
references.citation: Nat Med. 1999 Jul;5(7):828-31
references.pmid: 10395330
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2010 Jul 15;70(14):5728-39
references.pmid: 20570887
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2008 Dec;8(12):958-69
references.pmid: 19029990
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2011 Mar 1;71(5):1792-804
references.pmid: 21343401
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2005 Oct;5(10):749-59
references.pmid: 16175180
references.citation: Cell. 2006 Jan 27;124(2):263-6
references.pmid: 16439202
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2007 Mar 15;67(6):2649-56
references.pmid: 17363585
references.citation: Clin Cancer Res. 2008 Mar 1;14(5):1423-30
references.pmid: 18316565
references.citation: Cancer Sci. 2010 Aug;101(8):1913-9
references.pmid: 20545696
references.citation: Cell Growth Differ. 1994 Jun;5(6):647-57
references.pmid: 8086340
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1996 Nov 22;271(47):30022-7
references.pmid: 8939948
references.citation: Oncogene. 1994 Mar;9(3):693-8
references.pmid: 8108111
references.citation: J Immunol. 2011 Aug 1;187(3):1157-65
references.pmid: 21709158
references.citation: Leukemia. 1996 Jun;10(6):978-83
references.pmid: 8667655
references.citation: Eur J Cancer. 2001 Nov;37(17):2264-74
references.pmid: 11677117
references.citation: Cell. 2005 Jul 1;121(7):977-90
references.pmid: 15989949
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2010 Oct 1;70(19):7465-75
references.pmid: 20841473
references.citation: Int J Cancer. 2010 Sep 1;127(5):1131-40
references.pmid: 20027632
references.citation: Nature. 2011 May 19;473(7347):298-307
references.pmid: 21593862
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2007 Jan;7(1):41-51
references.pmid: 17186030
references.citation: Cancer Discov. 2011 Jun;1(1):54-67
references.pmid: 22039576
references.citation: Anticancer Res. 2005 Jan-Feb;25(1B):463-70
references.pmid: 15816613
references.citation: Cell Immunol. 2011;271(1):134-40
references.pmid: 21752353
references.citation: Blood. 2000 Jan 15;95(2):633-8
references.pmid: 10627473
references.citation: Curr Opin Immunol. 2010 Dec;22(6):740-6
references.pmid: 21030229
references.citation: Cell. 2000 Oct 13;103(2):211-25
references.pmid: 11057895
references.citation: J Invest Dermatol. 2011 Feb;131(2):509-17
references.pmid: 21068757
references.citation: Clin Cancer Res. 2006 May 1;12(9):2662-9
references.pmid: 16675557
references.citation: PLoS One. 2011 Apr 29;6(4):e19495
references.pmid: 21559338
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2004 Oct 15;64(20):7311-20
references.pmid: 15492251
references.citation: Cancer. 2011 Feb 15;117(4):734-43
references.pmid: 20922806
references.citation: EMBO J. 2010 Dec 1;29(23):3898-910
references.pmid: 20978472
references.citation: Leukemia. 1996 May;10(5):781-7
references.pmid: 8656672
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2008 Feb;118(2):560-70
references.pmid: 18219394
references.citation: Cell. 1995 Aug 11;82(3):355-8
references.pmid: 7634325
references.citation: Carcinogenesis. 2009 Jul;30(7):1073-81
references.pmid: 19468060
references.citation: FEBS J. 2006 Dec;273(23):5231-44
references.pmid: 17064312
references.citation: Blood. 2011 Aug 25;118(8):2211-21
references.pmid: 21730355
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2004 Jan 1;64(1):128-34
references.pmid: 14729616
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 1991 Oct;11(10):5016-31
references.pmid: 1656220
references.citation: J Immunol. 2006 Nov 15;177(10):7303-11
references.pmid: 17082649
references.citation: Nat Rev Cancer. 2009 Apr;9(4):239-52
references.pmid: 19279573
references.citation: Exp Hematol. 2010 Feb;38(2):132-40
references.pmid: 19922767
references.citation: EMBO J. 2006 Jan 11;25(1):80-7
references.pmid: 16362042
references.citation: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011 Feb 03;52(2):643-50
references.pmid: 20811059
references.citation: Stem Cells. 1998;16(3):229-38
references.pmid: 9617898
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1996 Nov 15;271(46):29049-59
references.pmid: 8910558
references.citation: J Surg Res. 2011 May 15;167(2):e211-9
references.pmid: 19765725
references.citation: Genes Dev. 2010 Feb 1;24(3):241-55
references.pmid: 20080943
references.citation: Transplantation. 2002 Feb 27;73(4):657-60
references.pmid: 11889449
references.citation: Oncology. 1999;57(2):138-42
references.pmid: 10461061
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2009 Jun 8;206(6):1327-37
references.pmid: 19451266
references.citation: J Invest Dermatol. 2011 Jun;131(6):1322-30
references.pmid: 21307877
references.citation: Blood. 1994 Sep 15;84(6):1931-41
references.pmid: 7521695
references.citation: Med Oncol. 2011 Dec;28(4):1447-52
references.pmid: 20676804
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2009 Apr;9(4):259-70
references.pmid: 19282852
references.citation: Int J Cancer. 2009 Oct 1;125(7):1640-8
references.pmid: 19569243
references.citation: Trends Immunol. 2002 Nov;23(11):549-55
references.pmid: 12401408
references.citation: J Pathol. 2011 Jan;223(2):162-76
references.pmid: 21125673
references.citation: Cancer Cell. 2011 Jan 18;19(1):31-44
references.pmid: 21215706
references.citation: Immunotherapy. 2011 Apr;3(4 Suppl):23-6
references.pmid: 21524164
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2004 Feb 20;279(8):6952-8
references.pmid: 14623883
references.citation: Blood. 2010 Mar 18;115(11):2264-73
references.pmid: 19965679
references.citation: Leuk Lymphoma. 1997 Mar;25(1-2):91-6
references.pmid: 9130617
references.citation: BMC Gastroenterol. 2009 Sep 04;9:65
references.pmid: 19732435
references.citation: Methods Mol Biol. 2009;487:243-66
references.pmid: 19301651
references.citation: Dev Biol. 2006 Dec 1;300(1):132-52
references.pmid: 17084834
references.citation: Nature. 2008 Jul 24;454(7203):436-44
references.pmid: 18650914
references.citation: Curr Opin Immunol. 2003 Feb;15(1):31-6
references.pmid: 12495730
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2006 Dec 1;66(23):11238-46
references.pmid: 17114237
references.citation: Oncogene. 2010 Feb 4;29(5):662-73
references.pmid: 19966854
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2011 Mar;232(1-2):75-82
references.pmid: 21056915
references.citation: Dev Cell. 2009 Feb;16(2):167-79
references.pmid: 19217420
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 1995 Dec;15(12):6582-92
references.pmid: 8524223
references.citation: BMC Cancer. 2010 Mar 25;10:112
references.pmid: 20338029
references.citation: J Cell Physiol. 2005 Jul;204(1):36-44
references.pmid: 15605394
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 2001 Feb;21(3):902-15
references.pmid: 11154277
references.citation: Anticancer Res. 2003 Nov-Dec;23(6D):5015-22
references.pmid: 14981961
references.citation: J Clin Oncol. 2010 Jan 20;28(3):453-9
references.pmid: 20008624
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 2010 Aug;40(8):2296-307
references.pmid: 20468007
references.citation: Nature. 2007 Dec 6;450(7171):825-31
references.pmid: 18064003
references.citation: Cell. 1995 Feb 24;80(4):661-70
references.pmid: 7867073
references.citation: J Virol. 1996 Nov;70(11):8089-97
references.pmid: 8892934
references.citation: Cancer Cell. 2009 Sep 8;16(3):183-94
references.pmid: 19732719
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1971 Nov 18;285(21):1182-6
references.pmid: 4938153
references.citation: Cancer Cell. 2005 Mar;7(3):211-7
references.pmid: 15766659
references.citation: Transpl Int. 2003 Sep;16(9):681-8
references.pmid: 12768229
references.citation: J Leukoc Biol. 2011 Jan;89(1):85-91
references.pmid: 20952660
references.citation: Blood. 2006 Mar 1;107(5):2112-22
references.pmid: 16269622
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 2011 Jan;178(1):382-90
references.pmid: 21224075
references.citation: Nat Med. 2011 Mar;17(3):320-9
references.pmid: 21383745
references.citation: J Interferon Cytokine Res. 1999 Jun;19(6):563-73
references.pmid: 10433356
references.citation: Theor Biol Med Model. 2011 Jul 27;8:28
references.pmid: 21794149
references.citation: Nat Rev Cancer. 2006 Jan;6(1):24-37
references.pmid: 16397525
references.citation: Blood. 2009 Oct 22;114(17):3625-8
references.pmid: 19710503
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2010 Nov 17;30(46):15521-34
references.pmid: 21084607
references.citation: Mol Endocrinol. 2008 Nov;22(11):2481-95
references.pmid: 18787040
references.citation: PLoS One. 2009 Aug 21;4(8):e6713
references.pmid: 19696929
references.citation: J Immunol. 2009 Sep 1;183(5):3004-13
references.pmid: 19657094
references.citation: Nat Rev Cancer. 2003 Apr;3(4):276-85
references.pmid: 12671666
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2008 May 8;358(19):2039-49
references.pmid: 18463380
references.citation: Oncogene. 2011 Apr 7;30(14):1643-52
references.pmid: 21132014
references.citation: Am J Pathol. 2004 Apr;164(4):1131-9
references.pmid: 15039201
references.citation: J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2011 May 20;30:62
references.pmid: 21595995
references.citation: Nature. 1995 Feb 16;373(6515):623-6
references.pmid: 7854420
references.citation: Cell. 2000 Jan 7;100(1):57-70
references.pmid: 10647931
references.citation: Nat Med. 2001 Feb;7(2):215-21
references.pmid: 11175853
references.citation: J Leukoc Biol. 2004 Apr;75(4):705-13
references.pmid: 14704368
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Jul 26;108(30):12425-30
references.pmid: 21746895
references.citation: Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2010 Oct;14(10):1073-90
references.pmid: 20809868
references.citation: Mol Cancer Ther. 2009 Jul;8(7):1924-33
references.pmid: 19567819
references.citation: Blood. 2010 Aug 5;116(5):829-40
references.pmid: 20404134
references.citation: Oncogene. 2004 Mar 11;23(10):1902-10
references.pmid: 14661063
references.citation: Mol Cancer Ther. 2010 May;9(5):1298-307
references.pmid: 20423999
references.citation: Blood. 2011 Jan 6;117(1):88-97
references.pmid: 20930067
references.citation: Oncogene. 2010 Sep 23;29(38):5254-64
references.pmid: 20603615
references.citation: J Immunol. 2000 Jan 15;164(2):762-7
references.pmid: 10623821
references.citation: Blood. 2010 Feb 18;115(7):1461-71
references.pmid: 20008303
references.citation: Cancer Res. 2004 Oct 1;64(19):7022-9
references.pmid: 15466195
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2008 Jul;8(7):533-44
references.pmid: 18551128
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Aug 7;104(32):13092-7
references.pmid: 17670948
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2010 Oct;11(10):889-96
references.pmid: 20856220
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1994 Apr 8;269(14):10720-8
references.pmid: 7511603
references.citation: Hum Pathol. 2002 Nov;33(11):1105-13
references.pmid: 12454815
references.citation: Thromb Haemost. 1991 Jul 12;66(1):49-61
references.pmid: 1833851
references.citation: Mol Cell Neurosci. 2006 Sep;33(1):96-108
references.pmid: 16901715
references.citation: Cell. 2010 Mar 19;140(6):883-99
references.pmid: 20303878
references.citation: Nature. 2004 Sep 23;431(7007):461-6
references.pmid: 15329734
references.citation: Nat Rev Immunol. 2005 Dec;5(12):953-64
references.pmid: 16322748
references.citation: Nat Rev Cancer. 2008 Aug;8(8):618-31
references.pmid: 18633355
references.citation: Oncogene. 1994 Mar;9(3):699-705
references.pmid: 8108112
references.citation: Blood. 2009 Jul 23;114(4):901-14
references.pmid: 19383967
references.citation: Cell. 2007 Nov 2;131(3):463-75
references.pmid: 17981115
references.citation: Oncogene. 1995 Dec 21;11(12):2619-26
references.pmid: 8545119
references.citation: Dev Genes Evol. 2003 Jun;213(5-6):213-21
references.pmid: 12736824
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1996 Apr 19;271(16):9785-9
references.pmid: 8621659
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2002 Jul 1;196(1):135-40
references.pmid: 12093878
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 1995 Feb;15(2):614-25
references.pmid: 7823930
references.citation: Leukemia. 1999 Sep;13(9):1352-8
references.pmid: 10482985
references.citation: Curr Opin Immunol. 2010 Apr;22(2):231-7
references.pmid: 20144856
references.citation: Carcinogenesis. 2011 Oct;32(10):1441-9
references.pmid: 21771729
references.citation: Blood. 2007 Feb 1;109(3):1026-33
references.pmid: 17047157
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2008 Feb;118(2):583-96
references.pmid: 18188450
references.citation: Blood. 2009 Apr 2;113(14):3139-46
references.pmid: 19171876
references.citation: Science. 2007 Jul 6;317(5834):121-4
references.pmid: 17615358
references.citation: Nat Rev Cancer. 2009 May;9(5):361-71
references.pmid: 19343034
references.citation: Gene. 1993 Dec 8;134(2):289-93
references.pmid: 8262388
references.citation: J Cancer Res Ther. 2010 Oct-Dec;6(4):427-31
references.pmid: 21358075
references.citation: Clin Cancer Res. 2009 Jul 15;15(14):4742-9
references.pmid: 19567592
references.citation: Cell. 2010 Apr 2;141(1):178-90
references.pmid: 20371353
references.citation: Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1995 Feb;28(2):273-80
references.pmid: 7723626
references.citation: J Pathol. 2008 Sep;216(1):55-63
references.pmid: 18570189
references.citation: Exp Hematol. 1996 Feb;24(2):318-23
references.pmid: 8641360