title: Micro-CT imaging of denatured chitin by silver to explore honey bee and insect pathologies.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Chitin and cuticle coatings are important to the environmental and immune defense of honey bees and insect pollinators. Pesticides or environmental effects may target the biochemistry of insect chitin and cuticle coating. Denaturing of chitin involves a combination of deacetylation, intercalation, oxidation, Schweiger-peeling, and the formation of amine hydrochloride salt. The term "denatured chitin" calls attention to structural and property changes to the internal membranes and external carapace of organisms so that some properties affecting biological activities are diminished.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A case study was performed on honey bees using silver staining and microscopic computer-tomographic x-ray radiography (micro-CT). Silver nitrate formed counter-ion complexes with labile ammonium cations and reacted with amine hydrochloride. Silver was concentrated in the peritrophic membrane, on the abdomen, in the glossa, at intersegmental joints (tarsi), at wing attachments, and in tracheal air sacs. Imaged mono-esters and fatty acids from cuticle coating on external surfaces were apparently reduced by an alcohol pretreatment.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The technique provides 3-dimensional and sectional images of individual honey bees consistent with the chemistries of silver reaction and complex formation with denatured chitin. Environmental exposures and influences such as gaseous nitric oxide intercalant, trace oxidants such as ozone gas, oligosachharide salt conversion, exposure to acid rain, and chemical or biochemical denaturing by pesticides may be studied using this technique. Peritrophic membranes, which protect against food abrasion, microorganisms, and permit efficient digestion, were imaged. Apparent surface damage to the corneal lenses of compound eyes by dilute acid exposure consistent with chitin amine hydrochloride formation was imaged. The technique can contribute to existing insect pathology research, and may provide an additional tool for research on CCD.
authors: Honey Bee Research Institute and Nature Center, Saint David, Maine, United States of America. pbutzloff@gmail.com
authors: Peter R
authors: PR
authors: Butzloff
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001516:Bees / Q000378:metabolism*; D002236:Carbohydrate Conformation / Q000187:drug effects*; D002686:Chitin / Q000737:chemistry*; D012542:Scattering, Radiation; D012834:Silver / Q000494:pharmacology*; D055114:X-Ray Microtomography / Q000379:methods*
chemical_list: D002686:Chitin; D012834:Silver