title: Pathogenesis and treatment of skin lesions caused by sulfur mustard.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Sulfur mustard (SM) exposure intensely causes lesions that range in severity from mild erythema to blister formation and necrosis. This review will discuss acute and long-term skin consequences due to exposure to SM and different kinds of medical prophylaxis and therapeutics against SM-induced skin lesions.
  
  
  METHODS
  Literature survey of medical case reports, clinical studies, and original articles was performed using PubMed, Medline, and the Cochrane Database (1917-2011 March). Key words included sulfur mustard, skin, toxicity, pathogenesis, cancer, treatment.
  
  
  RESULTS
  SM-induced damage to the skin is characterized by edema, inflammation, and cell death mainly of the basal keratinocyte layer, with varying immunological and pathological changes in the acute phase. Also, xerosis, hypo or hyper pigmentation, scars, and rarely, skin cancers are long-term cutaneous effects. So far,the combination therapy of topical drugs and oral antihistamines, also iodine and antitumor necrosis factor alpha antibodies, are effective remedies in the treatment of skin lesions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The requirement for preparedness in the dermatological community concerning SM exposure is underlined. Novel treatments for prevention and therapeutics against SM toxicity and carcinogenicity are reviewed.
authors: Chemical Injuries Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of medical sciences, Tehran, Iran.
authors: Zohreh
authors: Z
authors: Poursaleh
authors: Mostafa
authors: M
authors: Ghanei
authors: Farhang
authors: F
authors: Babamahmoodi
authors: Morteza
authors: M
authors: Izadi
authors: Ali Amini
authors: AA
authors: Harandi
authors: Seyed Emad
authors: SE
authors: Emadi
authors: Nez'hat-o-Sadat
authors: NO
authors: Taghavi
authors: Seyede Somaye
authors: SS
authors: Sayad-Nouri
authors: Seyed Naser
authors: SN
authors: Emadi
mesh_terms: D002619:Chemical Warfare Agents / Q000633:toxicity*; D002908:Chronic Disease; D004485:Eczema / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000473:pathology; D006801:Humans; D009151:Mustard Gas / Q000633:toxicity*; D011537:Pruritus / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000473:pathology; D012871:Skin Diseases / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000473:pathology; D012878:Skin Neoplasms / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000473:pathology; D012880:Skin Pigmentation / Q000187:drug effects; D014945:Wound Healing / Q000187:drug effects
chemical_list: D002619:Chemical Warfare Agents; D009151:Mustard Gas