title: Geographical, temporal and racial disparities in late-stage prostate cancer incidence across Florida: a multiscale joinpoint regression analysis.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Although prostate cancer-related incidence and mortality have declined recently, striking racial/ethnic differences persist in the United States. Visualizing and modelling temporal trends of prostate cancer late-stage incidence, and how they vary according to geographic locations and race, should help explaining such disparities. Joinpoint regression is increasingly used to identify the timing and extent of changes in time series of health outcomes. Yet, most analyses of temporal trends are aspatial and conducted at the national level or for a single cancer registry.
  
  
  METHODS
  Time series (1981-2007) of annual proportions of prostate cancer late-stage cases were analyzed for non-Hispanic Whites and non-Hispanic Blacks in each county of Florida. Noise in the data was first filtered by binomial kriging and results were modelled using joinpoint regression. A similar analysis was also conducted at the state level and for groups of metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties. Significant racial differences were detected using tests of parallelism and coincidence of time trends. A new disparity statistic was introduced to measure spatial and temporal changes in the frequency of racial disparities.
  
  
  RESULTS
  State-level percentage of late-stage diagnosis decreased 50% since 1981; a decline that accelerated in the 90's when Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) screening was introduced. Analysis at the metropolitan and non-metropolitan levels revealed that the frequency of late-stage diagnosis increased recently in urban areas, and this trend was significant for white males. The annual rate of decrease in late-stage diagnosis and the onset years for significant declines varied greatly among counties and racial groups. Most counties with non-significant average annual percent change (AAPC) were located in the Florida Panhandle for white males, whereas they clustered in South-eastern Florida for black males. The new disparity statistic indicated that the spatial extent of racial disparities reached a peak in 1990 because of an early decline in frequency of late-stage diagnosis observed for black males.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Analyzing temporal trends in cancer incidence and mortality rates outside a spatial framework is unsatisfactory, since it leads one to overlook significant geographical variation which can potentially generate new insights about the impact of various interventions. Differences observed among nested geographies in Florida show how the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) also impacts the analysis of temporal changes.
authors.affiliation: BioMedware, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI, USA. goovaerts@biomedware.com
authors.forename: Pierre
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Goovaerts
authors.forename: Hong
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Xiao
mesh_terms: D017677:Age Distribution; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D044383:Black People / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D015331:Cohort Studies; D016208:Databases, Factual; D057210:Delayed Diagnosis; D005431:Florida / Q000453:epidemiology; D005843:Geography; D007722:Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice / Q000208:ethnology; D054624:Health Status Disparities; D054625:Healthcare Disparities; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D020380:Needs Assessment; D009367:Neoplasm Staging; D011471:Prostatic Neoplasms / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000473:pathology / Q000628:therapy*; D012044:Regression Analysis; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012424:Rural Population / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D016019:Survival Analysis; D014505:Urban Population / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D044465:White People / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D001741:Black or African American