title: Chronic kidney disease and associated risk factors in the Bajo Lempa region of El Salvador: Nefrolempa study, 2009.
abstract: In El Salvador, end-stage renal disease is the leading cause of hospital deaths in adults, the second cause of death in men and the fifth leading cause of death in adults of both sexes in the general population.
  
  
  
  Identify risk factors for chronic kidney disease and urinary markers of renal and vascular damage, measure kidney function and characterize prevalence of chronic kidney disease in persons aged ≥18 years in the Bajo Lempa region of El Salvador.
  
  
  
  A cross-sectional analytical epidemiological study was carried out using active screening for chronic kidney disease and associated risk factors in individuals aged ≥18 years in the Bajo Lempa Region, a rural, coastal area in El Salvador. Door-to-door visits and clinical examinations were conducted. Epidemiological and clinical data were collected including: family and personal clinical history of disease; biological, behavioral, social and environmental risk factors; physical measurements; urinalysis for markers of renal and vascular damage; and blood tests (serum creatinine, serum glucose, lipid profile). Glomerular filtration rate was calculated using the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease formula. Chronic kidney disease case confirmation was done three months later. Multiple logistic regression was used for data analysis.
  
  
  
  A total of 375 families and 775 individuals (343 men, 432 women) were studied-88.3% of the total resident population in the region. Elevated prevalence of risk factors was observed: diabetes mellitus, 10.3%; hypertension,16.9%; family history of chronic kidney disease, 21.6%; dyslipidemias, 63.1%; overweight, 34%; obesity, 22.4%; metabolic syndrome, 28.8%; use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, 74.8%; infectious diseases, 86.9%; agricultural occupation, 40.6% (80.6% in men); and contact with agrochemicals, 50.3% (82.5% in men). Prevalence renal damage markers was 15.8% (greater in men): microalbuminuria 6.3%; proteinuria 5.7%; hematuria 3.5%; proteinuria-hematuria 0.3%. Proteinuria of <1 g/L predominated. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease was 17.9% (25.7% in men; 11.8% in women). Distribution by stages: stage 1, 4.6%; stage 2, 3.5%; stage 3, 6.2%; stage 4, 3.0%; stage 5, 0.6%. In patients with chronic kidney disease, most common was non-diabetic chronic kidney disease (86.3%), followed by chronic kidney disease associated with neither diabetes nor hypertension (54.7%). Prevalence of chronic renal failure was 9.8% (17% in men; 4.1% in women). Multiple logistic regression showed significant association with increasing age, male sex, hypertension and family history of chronic kidney disease.
  
  
  
  Elevated prevalence of chronic kidney disease, chronic renal failure and risk factors was found, compared to international reports. Most common was chronic kidney disease of unknown cause, associated with neither diabetes nor hypertension. Associations were found with age, male sex, hypertension and family history of chronic kidney disease, with decline in kidney function beginning at early ages. Male farmers have a dual burden of non traditional (occupational, toxic environmental) and traditional (vascular) risk factors that could act in synergy, contributing to kidney damage.
authors.affiliation: Salvadoran National Health Institute, San Salvador, El Salvador. doktorantes@yahoo.com
authors.forename: Carlos M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Orantes
authors.forename: Raúl
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Herrera
authors.forename: Miguel
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Almaguer
authors.forename: Elsy G
authors.initials: EG
authors.lastname: Brizuela
authors.forename: Carlos E
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Hernández
authors.forename: Héctor
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Bayarre
authors.forename: Juan C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Amaya
authors.forename: Denis J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Calero
authors.forename: Patricia
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Orellana
authors.forename: Rosa M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Colindres
authors.forename: María E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Velázquez
authors.forename: Sonia G
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Núñez
authors.forename: Verónica M
authors.initials: VM
authors.lastname: Contreras
authors.forename: Bertha E
authors.initials: BE
authors.lastname: Castro
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000652:urine; D002423:Cause of Death; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004544:El Salvador / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007676:Kidney Failure, Chronic / Q000453:epidemiology*; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D008403:Mass Screening; D015995:Prevalence; D012307:Risk Factors; D012424:Rural Population
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers