title: Closed-loop control of functional electrical stimulation-assisted arm-free standing in individuals with spinal cord injury: a feasibility study.
abstract: Objectives.  The purpose of the present study was to show that the design of a neuroprosthesis for unsupported (arm-free) standing is feasible. We review findings suggesting that a closed-loop controlled functional electrical stimulation (FES) system should be able to facilitate arm-free quiet standing in individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI). Particularly, this manuscript identifies: 1) a control strategy that accurately mimics the strategy healthy individuals apply to regulate the ankle joint position during quiet standing and 2) the degrees of freedom (DOF) of the redundant, closed-chain dynamic system of bipedal stance that have to be regulated to facilitate stable standing. Methods and Results.  First, we utilized a single DOF model of quiet standing (inverted pendulum) to analytically identify a proportional and derivative (PD) feedback controller that regulates the ankle torque in a physiologic manner despite a long sensory-motor time delay. Second, these theoretic results were experimentally validated by implementing the proposed PD controller to stabilize an individual with SCI during quiet standing. Third, a realistic, three-dimensional dynamic model of quiet standing with 12 DOF was used to determine the optimal combination of the minimum number of DOF that need to be regulated with the PD controller to ensure stability during quiet standing. Finally, perturbation simulations confirmed that the kinematics of this system are similar to those of healthy individuals during perturbed standing. Conclusions.  The presented results suggest that stable standing can be achieved in individuals with SCI by controlling only six DOF in the lower limbs using FES, and that a PD controller actuating these DOF can stabilize the system despite a long sensory-motor time delay. Our finding that not all DOF in the lower limbs need to be regulated is particularly relevant for individuals with complete SCI, because some of their muscles may be denervated or difficult to access.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada             Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, Lyndhurst Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada             Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
authors.forename: Albert H
authors.initials: AH
authors.lastname: Vette
authors.forename: Kei
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Masani
authors.forename: Joon-Young
authors.initials: JY
authors.lastname: Kim
authors.forename: Milos R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Popovic