title: Persistent expression of hepatitis C virus non-structural proteins leads to increased autophagy and mitochondrial injury in human hepatoma cells.
abstract: HCV infection is a major cause of chronic liver disease and liver cancer in the United States. To address the pathogenesis caused by HCV infection, recent studies have focused on the direct cytopathic effects of individual HCV proteins, with the objective of identifying their specific roles in the overall pathogenesis. However, this approach precludes examination of the possible interactions between different HCV proteins and organelles. To obtain a better understanding of the various cytopathic effects of and cellular responses to HCV proteins, we used human hepatoma cells constitutively replicating HCV RNA encoding either the full-length polyprotein or the non-structural proteins, or cells constitutively expressing the structural protein core, to model the state of persistent HCV infection and examined the combination of various HCV proteins in cellular pathogenesis. Increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in the mitochondria, mitochondrial injury and degeneration, and increased lipid accumulation were common among all HCV protein-expressing cells regardless of whether they expressed the structural or non-structural proteins. Expression of the non-structural proteins also led to increased oxidative stress in the cytosol, membrane blebbing in the endoplasmic reticulum, and accumulation of autophagocytic vacuoles. Alterations of cellular redox state, on the other hand, significantly changed the level of autophagy, suggesting a direct link between oxidative stress and HCV-mediated activation of autophagy. With the wide-spread cytopathic effects, cells with the full-length HCV polyprotein showed a modest antioxidant response and exhibited a significant increase in population doubling time and a concomitant decrease in cyclin D1. In contrast, cells expressing the non-structural proteins were able to launch a vigorous antioxidant response with up-regulation of antioxidant enzymes. The population doubling time and cyclin D1 level were also comparable to that of control cells. Finally, the cytopathic effects of core protein appeared to focus on the mitochondria without remarkable disturbances in the cytosol.
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Victor C
authors.initials: VC
authors.lastname: Chu
authors.forename: Sayanti
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bhattacharya
authors.forename: Ann
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Nomoto
authors.forename: Jiahui
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Lin
authors.forename: Syed Kashif
authors.initials: SK
authors.lastname: Zaidi
authors.forename: Terry D
authors.initials: TD
authors.lastname: Oberley
authors.forename: Steven A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Weinman
authors.forename: Salman
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Azhar
authors.forename: Ting-Ting
authors.initials: TT
authors.lastname: Huang
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000906:Antibodies / Q000737:chemistry; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000378:metabolism; D001343:Autophagy; D006528:Carcinoma, Hepatocellular / Q000378:metabolism / Q000821:virology*; D002460:Cell Line; D045744:Cell Line, Tumor; D019938:Cyclin D1 / Q000378:metabolism; D016678:Genome; D016174:Hepacivirus / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D007150:Immunohistochemistry / Q000379:methods; D008113:Liver Neoplasms / Q000378:metabolism / Q000821:virology*; D051379:Mice; D008822:Mice, Transgenic; D008928:Mitochondria / Q000378:metabolism*; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction; D013997:Time Factors; D015854:Up-Regulation
chemical_list: D000906:Antibodies; D000975:Antioxidants; D019938:Cyclin D1