title: Unfertilized frog eggs die by apoptosis following meiotic exit.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  A characteristic feature of frog reproduction is external fertilization accomplished outside the female's body. Mature fertilization-competent frog eggs are arrested at the meiotic metaphase II with high activity of the key meiotic regulators, maturation promoting factor (MPF) and cytostatic factor (CSF), awaiting fertilization. If the eggs are not fertilized within several hours of ovulation, they deteriorate and ultimately die by as yet unknown mechanism.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Here, we report that the vast majority of naturally laid unfertilized eggs of the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis spontaneously exit metaphase arrest under various environmental conditions and degrade by a well-defined apoptotic process within 48 hours after ovulation. The main features of this process include cytochrome c release, caspase activation, ATP depletion, increase of ADP/ATP ratio, apoptotic nuclear morphology, progressive intracellular acidification, and egg swelling. Meiotic exit seems to be a prerequisite for execution of the apoptotic program, since (i) it precedes apoptosis, (ii) apoptotic events cannot be observed in the eggs maintaining high activity of MPF and CSF, and (iii) apoptosis in unfertilized frog eggs is accelerated upon early meiotic exit. The apoptotic features cannot be observed in the immature prophase-arrested oocytes, however, the maturation-inducing hormone progesterone renders oocytes susceptible to apoptosis.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The study reveals that naturally laid intact frog eggs die by apoptosis if they are not fertilized. A maternal apoptotic program is evoked in frog oocytes upon maturation and executed after meiotic exit in unfertilized eggs. The meiotic exit is required for execution of the apoptotic program in eggs. The emerging anti-apoptotic role of meiotic metaphase arrest needs further investigation.
authors.affiliation: Research Center for Environmental Genomics, Kobe University, Rokko dai 1-1, Nada, Kobe, Japan. tokmak@phoenix.kobe-u.ac.jp
authors.forename: Alexander A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Tokmakov
authors.forename: Sho
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Iguchi
authors.forename: Tetsushi
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Iwasaki
authors.forename: Yasuo
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Fukami
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D017209:Apoptosis; D005260:Female; D005306:Fertilization; D008540:Meiosis; D010063:Ovum / Q000166:cytology* / Q000502:physiology*; D014982:Xenopus laevis / Q000502:physiology*