title: Effect of free ammonia concentration on monochloramine penetration within a nitrifying biofilm and its effect on activity, viability, and recovery.
abstract: Chloramine has replaced free chorine for secondary disinfection at many water utilities because of disinfection by-product (DBP) regulations. Because chloramination provides a source of ammonia, there is a potential for nitrification when using chloramines. Nitrification in drinking water distribution systems is undesirable and may result in degradation of water quality and subsequent non-compliance with existing regulations. Thus, nitrification control is a major issue and likely to become increasingly important as chloramine use increases. In this study, monochloramine penetration and its effect on nitrifying biofilm activity, viability, and recovery was investigated and evaluated using microelectrodes and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Monochloramine was applied to nitrifying biofilm for 24 h at two different chlorine to nitrogen (Cl(2):N) mass ratios (4:1 [4.4 mg Cl(2)/L] or 1:1 Cl(2):N [5.3 mg Cl(2)/L]), resulting in either a low (0.23 mg N/L) or high (4.2 mg N/L) free ammonia concentration. Subsequently, these biofilm samples were allowed to recover without monochloramine and receiving 4.2 mg N/L free ammonia. Under both monochloramine application conditions, monochloramine fully penetrated into the nitrifying biofilm within 24 h. Despite this complete monochloramine penetration, complete viability loss did not occur, and both biofilm samples subsequently recovered aerobic activity when fed only free ammonia. When monochloramine was applied with a low free ammonia concentration, dissolved oxygen (DO) fully penetrated, but with a high free ammonia concentration, complete cessation of aerobic activity (i.e., oxygen utilization) did not occur and subsequent analysis indicated that oxygen consumption still remained near the substratum. During the ammonia only recovery phase, different spatial recoveries were seen in each of the samples, based on oxygen utilization. It appears that the presence of higher free ammonia concentration allowed a larger biomass to remain active during monochloramine application, particularly the organisms deeper within the biofilm, leading to faster recovery in oxygen utilization when monochloramine was removed. These results suggest that limiting the free ammonia concentration during monochloramine application will slow the onset of nitrification episodes by maintaining the biofilm biomass at a state of lower activity.
authors.affiliation: National Risk Management Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA.
authors.forename: Jonathan G
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Pressman
authors.forename: Woo Hyoung
authors.initials: WH
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.forename: Paul L
authors.initials: PL
authors.lastname: Bishop
authors.forename: David G
authors.initials: DG
authors.lastname: Wahman
mesh_terms: D000641:Ammonia / Q000378:metabolism*; D001419:Bacteria / Q000166:cytology / Q000378:metabolism; D001673:Biodegradation, Environmental; D018441:Biofilms / Q000254:growth & development*; D002700:Chloramines / Q000032:analysis*; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D050296:Microbial Viability; D018613:Microscopy, Confocal; D009566:Nitrates / Q000032:analysis; D058465:Nitrification; D010100:Oxygen / Q000032:analysis
chemical_list: D002700:Chloramines; D009566:Nitrates; D000641:Ammonia; C030816:chloramine; D010100:Oxygen