title: Variation in inbreeding depression and plasticity across native and non-native field environments.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Since the early 1990s, research on genetic variation of phenotypic plasticity has expanded and empirical research has emphasized the role of the environment on the expression of inbreeding depression. An emerging question is how these two evolutionary ecology mechanisms interact in novel environments. Interest in this area has grown with the need to understand the establishment of populations in response to climate change, and to human-assisted transport to novel environments.
  
  
  METHODS
  We compare performance in the field of outcrossed (O) and inbred lines (S1, S2) from 20 maternal families from each of two native populations of Mimulus guttatus. The experiment was planted in California in each population's home site, in the other populations's home site, in a novel site within the native range of M. guttatus, and in a novel site within the non-native range in North America. The experiment included nearly 6500 individuals. Survival, sexual reproduction and above-ground biomass were examined in order to evaluate inbreeding depression, and stem diameter and plant height were examined in order to evaluate phenotypic plasticity.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Across all field sites, approx. 36 % of plants survived to flowering. Inbreeding depression differed among sites and outcrossed offspring generally outperformed selfed offspring. However, in the native-novel site, self-progeny performed better or equally well as outcross progeny. Significant phenotypic plasticity and genetic variation in plasticity was detected in the two architectural traits measured. The absolute value of plasticity showed the most marked difference between home and non-native novel site or non-native-novel site. Evidence was detected for an interaction between inbreeding and plasticity for stem diameter.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results demonstrate that during initial population establishment, both inbreeding depression and phenotypic plasticity vary among field sites, and may be an important response to environments outside a species' currently occupied range. However, the interaction between inbreeding and plasticity may be limited and environment-dependent.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, College of Charleston, Charleston, SC 29424, USA. murrenc@cofc.edu
authors.forename: C J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Murren
authors.forename: M R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Dudash
mesh_terms: D000483:Alleles; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D002140:California; D003433:Crosses, Genetic; D004777:Environment; D035264:Flowers / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology; D014644:Genetic Variation; D007178:Inbreeding; D032241:Mimulus / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology*; D010641:Phenotype; D018547:Plant Stems / Q000502:physiology*; D012098:Reproduction; D057945:Self-Fertilization; D013997:Time Factors