title: A low-cost GPS GSM/GPRS telemetry system: performance in stationary field tests and preliminary data on wild otters (Lutra lutra).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Despite the increasing worldwide use of global positioning system (GPS) telemetry in wildlife research, it has never been tested on any freshwater diving animal or in the peculiar conditions of the riparian habitat, despite this latter being one of the most important habitat types for many animal taxa. Moreover, in most cases, the GPS devices used have been commercial and expensive, limiting their use in low-budget projects.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We have developed a low-cost, easily constructed GPS GSM/GPRS (Global System for Mobile Communications/General Packet Radio Service) and examined its performance in stationary tests, by assessing the influence of different habitat types, including the riparian, as well as water submersion and certain climatic and environmental variables on GPS fix-success rate and accuracy. We then tested the GPS on wild diving animals, applying it, for the first time, to an otter species (Lutra lutra). The rate of locations acquired during the stationary tests reached 63.2%, with an average location error of 8.94 m (SD = 8.55). GPS performance in riparian habitats was principally affected by water submersion and secondarily by GPS inclination and position within the riverbed. Temporal and spatial correlations of location estimates accounted for some variation in the data sets. GPS-tagged otters also provided accurate locations and an even higher GPS fix-success rate (68.2%).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results suggest that GPS telemetry is reliably applicable to riparian and even diving freshwater animals. They also highlight the need, in GPS wildlife studies, for performing site-specific pilot studies on GPS functioning as well as for taking into account eventual spatial and temporal correlation of location estimates. The limited price, small dimensions, and high performance of the device presented here make it a useful and cost-effective tool for studies on otters and other aquatic or terrestrial medium-to-large-sized animals.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Charles Darwin", University of Roma 'La Sapienza', Roma, Italy.
authors.forename: Lorenzo
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Quaglietta
authors.forename: Bruno Herlander
authors.initials: BH
authors.lastname: Martins
authors.forename: Addy
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: de Jongh
authors.forename: António
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mira
authors.forename: Luigi
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Boitani
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000835:Animals, Wild / Q000502:physiology*; D040421:Cell Phone / Q000191:economics*; D003365:Costs and Cost Analysis; D005260:Female; D040362:Geographic Information Systems / Q000191:economics*; D020407:Internet; D016014:Linear Models; D010041:Otters / Q000502:physiology*; D011174:Portugal; D011845:Radio / Q000191:economics*; D013223:Statistics as Topic; D013686:Telemetry / Q000191:economics* / Q000379:methods*; D013997:Time Factors