title: Metal lost and found: dissipative uses and releases of copper in the United States 1975-2000.
abstract: Metals are used in a variety of ways, many of which lead to dissipative releases to the environment. Such releases are relevant from both a resource use and an environmental impact perspective. We present a historical analysis of copper dissipative releases in the United States from 1975 to 2000. We situate all dissipative releases in copper's life cycle and introduce a conceptual framework by which copper dissipative releases may be categorized in terms of intentionality of use and release. We interpret our results in the context of larger trends in production and consumption and government policies that have served as drivers of intentional copper releases from the relevant sources. Intentional copper releases are found to be both significant in quantity and highly variable. In 1975, for example, the largest source of intentional releases was from the application of copper-based pesticides, and this decreased more than 50% over the next 25 years; all other sources of intentional releases increased during that period. Overall, intentional copper releases decreased by approximately 15% from 1975 to 2000. Intentional uses that are unintentionally released such as copper from roofing, increased by the same percentage. Trace contaminant sources such as fossil fuel combustion, i.e., sources where both the use and the release are unintended, increased by nearly 50%. Intentional dissipative uses are equivalent to 60% of unintentional copper dissipative releases and more than five times that from trace sources. Dissipative copper releases are revealed to be modest when compared to bulk copper flows in the economy, and we introduce a metric, the dissipation index, which may be considered an economy-wide measure of resource efficiency for a particular substance. We assess the importance of dissipative releases in the calculation of recycling rates, concluding that the inclusion of dissipation in recycling rate calculations has a small, but discernible, influence, and should be included in such calculations.
authors.affiliation: Center for Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, 195 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511, United States. reid.lifset@yale.edu
authors.forename: Reid J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Lifset
authors.forename: Matthew J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Eckelman
authors.forename: E M
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Harper
authors.forename: Zeke
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Hausfather
authors.forename: Gonzalo
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Urbina