title: Effect of sanitation on soil-transmitted helminth infection: systematic review and meta-analysis.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In countries of high endemicity of the soil-transmitted helminth parasites Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and hookworm, preventive chemotherapy (i.e., repeated administration of anthelmintic drugs to at-risk populations) is the main strategy to control morbidity. However, rapid reinfection of humans occurs after successful deworming, and therefore effective preventive measures are required to achieve public health goals with optimal efficiency and sustainability.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the effect of sanitation (i.e., access and use of facilities for the safe disposal of human urine and feces) on infection with soil-transmitted helminths. PubMed, Embase, ISI Web of Science, and the World Health Organization Library Database were searched without language restrictions and year of publication (search performed until December 31, 2010). Bibliographies of identified articles were hand-searched. All types of studies reporting data on sanitation availability (i.e., having access at own household or living in close proximity to sanitation facility), or usage, and soil-transmitted helminth infections at the individual level were considered. Reported odds ratios (ORs) of the protective effect of sanitation on soil-transmitted helminth infections were extracted from the papers or calculated from reported numbers. The quality of published studies was assessed with a panel of criteria developed by the authors. Random effects meta-analyses were used to account for observed heterogeneity. Thirty-six publications, consisting of 39 datasets, met our inclusion criteria. Availability of sanitation facilities was associated with significant protection against infection with soil-transmitted helminths (OR  =  0.46 to 0.58). Regarding the use of sanitation, ORs of 0.54 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.28-1.02), 0.63 (95% CI 0.37-1.05), and 0.78 (95% CI 0.60-1.00) were determined for T. trichiura, hookworm, and A. lumbricoides, respectively. The overall ORs, combining sanitation availability and use, were 0.51 (95% CI 0.44-0.61) for the three soil-transmitted helminths combined, 0.54 (95% CI 0.43-0.69) for A. lumbricoides, 0.58 (95% CI 0.45-0.75) for T. trichiura, and 0.60 (95% CI 0.48-0.75) for hookworm.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Despite a number of limitations (e.g., most studies used a cross-sectional design and were of low quality, with potential biases and considerable heterogeneity), our results reveal that sanitation is associated with a reduced risk of transmission of helminthiases to humans. Access to improved sanitation should be prioritized alongside preventive chemotherapy and health education to achieve a durable reduction of the burden of helminthiases.
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Kathrin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Ziegelbauer
authors.forename: Benjamin
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Speich
authors.forename: Daniel
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Mäusezahl
authors.forename: Robert
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Bos
authors.forename: Jennifer
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Keiser
authors.forename: Jürg
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Utzinger
mesh_terms: D000723:Ancylostomatoidea / Q000502:physiology; D000818:Animals; D001196:Ascariasis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000635:transmission; D017164:Ascaris lumbricoides / Q000502:physiology; D006725:Hookworm Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000635:transmission; D006801:Humans; D009348:Nematoda; D009349:Nematode Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control* / Q000635:transmission*; D012499:Sanitation; D012987:Soil / Q000469:parasitology*; D014257:Trichuriasis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000635:transmission; D014258:Trichuris / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: D012987:Soil