title: Body mass index and height over three generations: evidence from the Lifeways cross-generational cohort study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Obesity and its measure of body mass index are strongly determined by parental body size. Debate continues as to whether both parents contribute equally to offspring body mass which is key to understanding the aetiology of the disease. The aim of this study was to use cohort data from three generations of one family to examine the relative maternal and paternal associations with offspring body mass index and how these associations compare with family height to demonstrate evidence of genetic or environmental cross-generational transmission.
  
  
  METHODS
  669 of 1082 families were followed up in 2007/8 as part of the Lifeways study, a prospective observational cross-generation linkage cohort. Height and weight were measured in 529 Irish children aged 5 to 7 years and were self-reported by parents and grandparents. All adults provided information on self-rated health, education status, and indicators of income, diet and physical activity. Associations between the weight, height, and body mass index of family members were examined with mixed models and heritability estimates computed using linear regression analysis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Self-rated health was associated with lower BMI for all family members, as was age for children. When these effects were accounted for evidence of familial associations of BMI from one generation to the next was more apparent in the maternal line. Heritability estimates were higher (h2 = 0.40) for mother-offspring pairs compared to father-offspring pairs (h2 = 0.22). In the previous generation, estimates were higher between mothers-parents (h2 = 0.54-0.60) but not between fathers-parents (h2 = -0.04-0.17). Correlations between mother and offspring across two generations remained significant when modelled with fixed variables of socioeconomic status, health, and lifestyle. A similar analysis of height showed strong familial associations from maternal and paternal lines across each generation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This is the first family cohort study to report an enduring association between mother and offspring BMI over three generations. The evidence of BMI transmission over three generations through the maternal line in an observational study corroborates the findings of animal studies. A more detailed analysis of geno and phenotypic data over three generations is warranted to understand the nature of this maternal-offspring relationship.
authors.affiliation: School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Population Science, University College Dublin, Woodview House, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland. celine.murrin@ucd.ie
authors.forename: Celine M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Murrin
authors.forename: Gabrielle E
authors.initials: GE
authors.lastname: Kelly
authors.forename: Richard E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Tremblay
authors.forename: Cecily C
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Kelleher
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001827:Body Height / Q000235:genetics*; D015992:Body Mass Index; D001835:Body Weight / Q000235:genetics*; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D015331:Cohort Studies; D004032:Diet / Q000523:psychology; D015444:Exercise / Q000523:psychology; D005260:Female; D006305:Health Status Indicators; D006801:Humans; D040582:Inheritance Patterns / Q000235:genetics*; D007494:Ireland; D008019:Life Style; D016014:Linear Models; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D009035:Mothers / Q000523:psychology; D010641:Phenotype; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires