title: Pharmacological interventions in the treatment of the acute effects of cannabis: a systematic review of literature.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cannabis intoxication is related to a number of physical and mental health risks with ensuing social costs. However, little attention has been given to the investigation of possible pharmacological interactions in this condition.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To review the available scientific literature concerning pharmacological interventions for the treatment of the acute effects of cannabis.
  
  
  METHODS
  A search was performed on the Pubmed, Lilacs, and Scielo online databases by combining the terms cannabis, intoxication, psychosis, anxiety, and treatment. The articles selected from this search had their reference lists checked for additional publications related to the topic of the review.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The reviewed articles consisted of case reports and controlled clinical trials and are presented according to interventions targeting the physiological, psychiatric, and cognitive symptoms provoked by cannabis. The pharmacological interventions reported in these studies include: beta-blockers, antiarrhythmic agents, antagonists of CB-1 and GABA-benzodiazepine receptors, antipsychotics, and cannabidiol.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Although scarce, the evidence on pharmacological interventions for the management of cannabis intoxication suggests that propanolol and rimonabant are the most effective compounds currently available to treat the physiological and subjective effects of the drug. Further studies are necessary to establish the real effectiveness of these two medications, as well as the effectiveness of other candidate compounds to counteract the effects of cannabis intoxication, such as cannabidiol and flumazenil.
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo and INCT Translational Medicine (CNPq), Brazil. jcrippa@fmrp.usp.br.
authors.forename: José As
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Crippa
authors.forename: Guilherme N
authors.initials: GN
authors.lastname: Derenusson
authors.forename: Marcos Hn
authors.initials: MH
authors.lastname: Chagas
authors.forename: Zerrin
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Atakan
authors.forename: Rocio
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Martín-Santos
authors.forename: Antonio W
authors.initials: AW
authors.lastname: Zuardi
authors.forename: Jaime Ec
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Hallak