title: Maternal occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: effects on gastroschisis among offspring in the National Birth Defects Prevention Study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) occurs in many occupational settings. There is evidence in animal models that maternal exposure to PAHs during pregnancy is associated with gastroschisis in offspring; however, to our knowledge, no human studies examining this association have been conducted.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Our goal was to conduct a case-control study assessing the association between estimated maternal occupational exposure to PAHs and gastroschisis in offspring.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data from gastroschisis cases and control infants were obtained from the population-based National Birth Defects Prevention Study for the period 1997-2002. Exposure to PAHs was assigned by industrial hygienist consensus, based on self-reported maternal occupational histories from 1 month before conception through the third month of pregnancy. Logistic regression was used to determine the association between estimated occupational PAH exposure and gastroschisis among children whose mothers were employed for at least 1 month during the month before conception through the third month of pregnancy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The prevalence of estimated occupational PAH exposure was 9.0% in case mothers (27 of 299) and 3.6% in control mothers (107 of 2,993). Logistic regression analyses indicated a significant association between occupational PAHs and gastroschisis among mothers ≥ 20 years of age [odds ratio (OR) = 2.53; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.27, 5.04] after adjusting for maternal body mass index, education, gestational diabetes, and smoking. This association was not seen in mothers < 20 years (OR = 1.14; 95% CI: 0.55, 2.33), which is notable because although young maternal age is the strongest known risk factor for gastroschisis, most cases are born to mothers ≥ 20 years.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our findings indicate an association between occupational exposure to PAHs among mothers who are ≥ 20 years and gastroschisis. These results contribute to a body of evidence that PAHs may be teratogenic.
authors.affiliation: Division of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas School of Public Health, Houston, Texas 77030, USA. Philip.J.Lupo@uth.tmc.edu
authors.forename: Philip J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Lupo
authors.forename: Peter H
authors.initials: PH
authors.lastname: Langlois
authors.forename: Jennita
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Reefhuis
authors.forename: Christina C
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Lawson
authors.forename: Elaine
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Symanski
authors.forename: Tania A
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: Desrosiers
authors.forename: Zeina G
authors.initials: ZG
authors.lastname: Khodr
authors.forename: A J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Agopian
authors.forename: Martha A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Waters
authors.forename: Kara N
authors.initials: KN
authors.lastname: Duwe
authors.forename: Richard H
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Finnell
authors.forename: Laura E
authors.initials: LE
authors.lastname: Mitchell
authors.forename: Cynthia A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Moore
authors.forename: Paul A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Romitti
authors.forename: Gary M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Shaw
mesh_terms: D016022:Case-Control Studies; D005260:Female; D020139:Gastroschisis / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000453:epidemiology*; D006801:Humans; D016015:Logistic Models; D018811:Maternal Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects*; D016273:Occupational Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects*; D016017:Odds Ratio; D011084:Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons; D011247:Pregnancy; D012307:Risk Factors; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology
chemical_list: D011084:Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons