title: Immune system inflammation in cocaine dependent individuals: implications for medications development.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Cocaine dependence is a chronic stress state. Furthermore, both stress and substance abuse have robust and reciprocal effects on immune system cytokines, which are known to be powerful modulators of mood. We therefore examine basal and provoked changes in peripheral cytokines in cocaine dependent individuals to better understand their role in the negative reinforcing effects of cocaine.
  
  
  METHODS
  Twenty-eight (16 F/12 M) treatment-seeking cocaine dependent individuals and 27 (14 F/13 M) social drinkers were exposed to three 5-min guided imagery conditions (stress, drug cue, relaxing) presented randomly across consecutive days. Measures of salivary cortisol, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) were collected at baseline and various post-imagery time-points.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Cocaine abusers demonstrated decreased basal IL-10 compared with social drinkers. They also showed significant elevations in pro-inflammatory TNFα when exposed to stress compared with when they were exposed to relaxing imagery. This was not observed in the social drinkers. Conversely, social drinkers demonstrated increases in the anti-inflammatory markers, IL-10 and IL-1ra, following exposure to cue, which were not seen in the dependent individuals.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Cocaine dependent individuals demonstrate an elevated inflammatory state both at baseline and following exposure to the stress imagery condition. Cytokines may reflect potentially novel biomarkers in addicted populations for treatment development.
authors.affiliation: The Connecticut Mental Health Center, Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT 06519, USA. helen.fox@yale.edu
authors.forename: Helen C
authors.initials: HC
authors.lastname: Fox
authors.forename: Carrol
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: D'Sa
authors.forename: Anne
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kimmerling
authors.forename: Kristen M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Siedlarz
authors.forename: Keri L
authors.initials: KL
authors.lastname: Tuit
authors.forename: Raymond
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Stowe
authors.forename: Rajita
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Sinha
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000453:epidemiology; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000378:metabolism; D019970:Cocaine-Related Disorders / Q000150:complications* / Q000276:immunology; D003463:Cues; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D019018:Imagery, Psychotherapy / Q000379:methods; D007249:Inflammation / Q000209:etiology* / Q000276:immunology; D018836:Inflammation Mediators / Q000378:metabolism*; D008297:Male; D012054:Reinforcement, Psychology; D012463:Saliva / Q000737:chemistry; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000209:etiology* / Q000276:immunology; D013997:Time Factors; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D018836:Inflammation Mediators