title: Cardio-renal syndrome type 4: epidemiology, pathophysiology and treatment.
abstract: Cardiovascular diseases such as coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure, arrhythmia, and sudden cardiac death represent the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in patients with CKD, increasing sharply as patients approach end-stage renal disease. The pathogenesis includes a complex, bidirectional interaction between the heart and kidneys that encompasses traditional and nontraditional risk factors, and has been termed cardio-renal syndrome type 4. In this review, an overview of the epidemiology and scope of this problem is provided, some suggested mechanisms for the pathophysiology of this disorder are discussed, and some of the key treatment strategies are described, with particular focus on recent clinical trials, both negative and positive.
authors.affiliation: Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario Division of Nephrology, University Hospital, London, Ontario, Canada. andrew.house@lhsc.on.ca
authors.forename: Andrew A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: House
mesh_terms: D059347:Cardio-Renal Syndrome / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy; D006333:Heart Failure / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy; D006397:Hematinics / Q000627:therapeutic use; D006801:Humans; D019161:Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors / Q000627:therapeutic use; D007676:Kidney Failure, Chronic / Q000150:complications* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy; D006435:Renal Dialysis; D051436:Renal Insufficiency, Chronic / Q000150:complications* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy; D014815:Vitamins / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D006397:Hematinics; D019161:Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors; D014815:Vitamins