title: Biological sex and menstrual cycle phase modulation of cortisol levels and psychiatric symptoms in a non-clinical sample of young adults.
abstract: Prior research examined the complex, bidirectional interplay of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes and their roles in (clinical) cognitive/behavioral functions. Less well understood are contemporaneous relationships in non-clinical samples. This pilot study explored cortisol in relation to psychiatric symptoms/personality as a function of self-reported menstrual cycle phase and sex differences in a non-clinical, young adult sample. Consistent with literature and hypotheses, cortisol levels were lowest during early-follicular, intermediary during late-follicular, and highest during mid-luteal phases (not significant), and greater among males than early-follicular females. An acute stressor uniformly affected cortisol across phases and sex, though magnitude and time course differed. Psychiatric symptoms were greater among early-follicular/late-follicular females versus males, and early-follicular and/or late-follicular versus mid-luteal. Contrary to hypotheses, positive psychotic-like symptoms were greater among males than (mid-luteal) females. Cortisol inversely related to early-follicular symptoms, and directly related to late-follicular/mid-luteal symptoms. Results suggest menstrual cycle phase modulates non-clinical psychiatric symptomatology and HPA activity. Findings tentatively bolster a dimensional/continuum model of psychopathology with implications for understanding neurobiological underpinnings and risk/protective factors for mental/physical health conditions, particularly those marked by sex differences and neuroendocrine dysfunction (depression/schizophrenia/Alzheimer's/multiple sclerosis). We speculate a dose-response cortisol effect on symptoms, modulated by endogenous gonadal hormones via gene expression.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Brooklyn College, The City University of New York, New York, USA. DWalder@brooklyn.cuny.edu
authors.forename: Deborah J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Walder
authors.forename: Marta
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Statucka
authors.forename: Maureen P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Daly
authors.forename: Kathleen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Axen
authors.forename: Margalit
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Haber
mesh_terms: D001526:Behavioral Symptoms / Q000378:metabolism*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000378:metabolism*; D008297:Male; D008597:Menstrual Cycle / Q000378:metabolism*; D010555:Personality Inventory / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D011569:Psychiatric Status Rating Scales; D012463:Saliva / Q000378:metabolism; D057566:Self Report; D012727:Sex Characteristics; D013997:Time Factors; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D006854:Hydrocortisone