title: Distribution and molecular evolution of bacillus anthracis genotypes in Namibia.
abstract: The recent development of genetic markers for Bacillus anthracis has made it possible to monitor the spread and distribution of this pathogen during and between anthrax outbreaks. In Namibia, anthrax outbreaks occur annually in the Etosha National Park (ENP) and on private game and livestock farms. We genotyped 384 B. anthracis isolates collected between 1983-2010 to identify the possible epidemiological correlations of anthrax outbreaks within and outside the ENP and to analyze genetic relationships between isolates from domestic and wild animals. The isolates came from 20 animal species and from the environment and were genotyped using a 31-marker multi-locus-VNTR-analysis (MLVA) and, in part, by twelve single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and four single nucleotide repeat (SNR) markers. A total of 37 genotypes (GT) were identified by MLVA, belonging to four SNP-groups. All GTs belonged to the A-branch in the cluster- and SNP-analyses. Thirteen GTs were found only outside the ENP, 18 only within the ENP and 6 both inside and outside. Genetic distances between isolates increased with increasing time between isolations. However, genetic distance between isolates at the beginning and end of the study period was relatively small, indicating that while the majority of GTs were only found sporadically, three genetically close GTs, accounting for more than four fifths of all the ENP isolates, appeared dominant throughout the study period. Genetic distances among isolates were significantly greater for isolates from different host species, but this effect was small, suggesting that while species-specific ecological factors may affect exposure processes, transmission cycles in different host species are still highly interrelated. The MLVA data were further used to establish a model of the probable evolution of GTs within the endemic region of the ENP. SNR-analysis was helpful in correlating an isolate with its source but did not elucidate epidemiological relationships.
authors.affiliation: University of Hohenheim, Institute of Environmental and Animal Hygiene, Stuttgart, Germany. wolfgang.beyer@uni-hohenheim.de
authors.forename: Wolfgang
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Beyer
authors.forename: Steve
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bellan
authors.forename: Gisela
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Eberle
authors.forename: Holly H
authors.initials: HH
authors.lastname: Ganz
authors.forename: Wayne M
authors.initials: WM
authors.lastname: Getz
authors.forename: Renate
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Haumacher
authors.forename: Karen A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Hilss
authors.forename: Werner
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Kilian
authors.forename: Judith
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Lazak
authors.forename: Wendy C
authors.initials: WC
authors.lastname: Turner
authors.forename: Peter C B
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Turnbull
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000881:Anthrax / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology / Q000662:veterinary*; D001408:Bacillus anthracis / Q000145:classification* / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D016000:Cluster Analysis; D004196:Disease Outbreaks; D004783:Environmental Microbiology; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D014644:Genetic Variation; D005838:Genotype; D018598:Minisatellite Repeats; D017720:Molecular Epidemiology; D058889:Molecular Typing; D009276:Namibia / Q000453:epidemiology; D020641:Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide