title: An analysis of ethical issues in using wastewater analysis to monitor illicit drug use.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To discuss ethical issues that may arise in using WWA to monitor illicit drug use in the general population and in entertainment precincts, prisons, schools and work-places.
  
  
  METHODS
  Review current applications of WWA and identify ethical and social issues that may be raised with current and projected future uses of this method.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Wastewater analysis (WWA) of drug residues is a promising method of monitoring illicit drug use that may overcome some limitations of other monitoring methods. When used for monitoring purposes in large populations, WWA does not raise major ethical concerns because individuals are not identified and the prospects of harming residents of catchment areas are remote. When WWA is used in smaller catchment areas (entertainment venues, prisons, schools or work-places) their results could, possibly, indirectly affect the occupants adversely. Researchers will need to take care in reporting their results to reduce media misreporting. Fears about possible use of WWA for mass individual surveillance by drug law enforcement officials are unlikely to be realized, but will need to be addressed because they may affect public support adversely for this type of research.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Using wastewater analysis to monitor illicit drug use in large populations does not raise major ethical concerns, but researchers need to minimize possible adverse consequences in studying smaller populations, such as workers, prisoners and students.
authors.affiliation: The University of Queensland, UQ Centre for Clinical Research, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital Site, Herston, QLD, Australia. w.hall@uq.edu.au
authors.forename: Wayne
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Hall
authors.forename: Jeremy
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Prichard
authors.forename: Paul
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Kirkbride
authors.forename: Raimondo
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Bruno
authors.forename: Phong K
authors.initials: PK
authors.lastname: Thai
authors.forename: Coral
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Gartner
authors.forename: Foon Yin
authors.initials: FY
authors.lastname: Lai
authors.forename: Christoph
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Ort
authors.forename: Jochen F
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Mueller
mesh_terms: D004992:Ethics, Medical; D006801:Humans; D013287:Illicit Drugs / Q000032:analysis*; D035846:Law Enforcement / Q000941:ethics; D011330:Prisons / Q000941:ethics; D011633:Public Facilities / Q000941:ethics; D012572:School Health Services / Q000941:ethics; D015813:Substance Abuse Detection / Q000941:ethics* / Q000379:methods; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis*; D062065:Wastewater / Q000032:analysis*; D017132:Workplace
chemical_list: D013287:Illicit Drugs; D062065:Wastewater