title: Maternal choline intake modulates maternal and fetal biomarkers of choline metabolism in humans.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In 1998 choline Adequate Intakes of 425 and 450 mg/d were established for nonpregnant and pregnant women, respectively. However, to our knowledge, no dose-response studies have been conducted to evaluate the effects of pregnancy or maternal choline intake on biomarkers of choline metabolism.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We sought to quantify the effects of pregnancy and maternal choline intake on maternal and fetal indicators of choline metabolism.
  
  
  METHODS
  Healthy pregnant (n = 26; 27 wk gestation) and nonpregnant (n = 21) women were randomly assigned to receive 480 or 930 mg choline/d for 12 wk. Fasting blood samples and placental tissue and umbilical cord venous blood were collected and analyzed for choline and its metabolites.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Regardless of the choline intake, pregnant women had higher circulating concentrations of choline (30%; P < 0.001) but lower concentrations of betaine, dimethylglycine, sarcosine, and methionine (13-55%; P < 0.001). Obligatory losses of urinary choline and betaine in pregnant women were ∼2-4 times as high (P ≤ 0.02) as those in nonpregnant women. A higher choline intake yielded higher concentrations of choline, betaine, dimethylglycine, and sarcosine (12-46%; P ≤ 0.08) in both pregnant and nonpregnant women without affecting urinary choline excretion. The higher maternal choline intake also led to a doubling of dimethylglycine in cord plasma (P = 0.002).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These data suggest that an increment of 25 mg choline/d to meet the demands of pregnancy is insufficient and show that a higher maternal choline intake increases the use of choline as a methyl donor in both maternal and fetal compartments. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01127022.
authors.affiliation: Division of Nutritional Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14583, USA.
authors.forename: Jian
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Yan
authors.forename: Xinyin
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Jiang
authors.forename: Allyson A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: West
authors.forename: Cydne A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Perry
authors.forename: Olga V
authors.initials: OV
authors.lastname: Malysheva
authors.forename: Srisatish
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Devapatla
authors.forename: Eva
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Pressman
authors.forename: Francoise
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Vermeylen
authors.forename: Sally P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Stabler
authors.forename: Robert H
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Allen
authors.forename: Marie A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Caudill
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001622:Betaine / Q000097:blood* / Q000652:urine; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D002794:Choline / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000652:urine; D005260:Female; D005312:Fetal Blood / Q000737:chemistry*; D005333:Fetus / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D008715:Methionine / Q000378:metabolism / Q000652:urine; D011247:Pregnancy; D012521:Sarcosine / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D001622:Betaine; C025138:dimethylglycine; D008715:Methionine; D002794:Choline; D012521:Sarcosine