title: Skin carotenoid status measured by resonance Raman spectroscopy as a biomarker of fruit and vegetable intake in preschool children.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Dietary assessment in children is difficult, suggesting a need to develop more objective biomarkers of intake. Resonance Raman spectroscopy (RRS) is a non-invasive, validated method of measuring carotenoid status in skin as a biomarker of fruit/vegetable intake. The purpose of this study was to examine the feasibility of using RRS in preschool children, to describe inter-individual variability in skin carotenoid status and to identify factors associated with the biomarker in this population.
  
  
  METHODS
  We conducted a cross-sectional study of 381 economically disadvantaged preschoolers in urban centers in Connecticut (USA). In all, 85.5% were black non-Hispanic or Hispanic/Latino, and 14.1% were obese and 16.9% were overweight by age- and sex-specific body mass index (BMI) percentiles. Children had their skin carotenoid status assessed by RRS in the palm of the hand. Fruit/vegetable consumption was assessed by a brief parent/guardian-completed food frequency screener and a liking survey.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We observed inter-individual variation in RRS values that was nearly normally distributed. In multiple regression analysis, higher carotenoid status, measured by RRS, was positively associated with fruit/vegetable consumption (P=0.02) and fruit/vegetable preference (P<0.01). Lower carotenoid status was observed among younger children, those participating in the US Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, and those with greater adiposity (P<0.05 for all).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We observed wide variability in skin carotenoid status in a population of young children, as assessed by RRS. Parent-reported fruit/vegetable intake and several demographic factors were significantly associated with RRS-measured skin carotenoid status. We recommend further development of this biomarker in children, including evaluating response to controlled interventions.
authors.affiliation: Yale School of Public Health, Division of Chronic Disease Epidemiology, New Haven, CT 10016-3240, USA. stephanie.scarmo@nyumc.org
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Scarmo
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Henebery
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Peracchio
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Cartmel
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Lin
authors.forename: I V
authors.initials: IV
authors.lastname: Ermakov
authors.forename: W
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Gellermann
authors.forename: P S
authors.initials: PS
authors.lastname: Bernstein
authors.forename: V B
authors.initials: VB
authors.lastname: Duffy
authors.forename: S T
authors.initials: ST
authors.lastname: Mayne
mesh_terms: D000367:Age Factors; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000378:metabolism; D044383:Black People; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002338:Carotenoids / Q000378:metabolism*; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003237:Connecticut; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004032:Diet / Q000592:standards; D004034:Diet Surveys; D005260:Female; D005518:Food Preferences; D005522:Food Services; D005638:Fruit; D006225:Hand; D006630:Hispanic or Latino; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D015596:Nutrition Assessment; D009752:Nutritional Status; D009765:Obesity / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000378:metabolism; D050177:Overweight / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000378:metabolism; D010290:Parents; D012044:Regression Analysis; D012867:Skin / Q000378:metabolism*; D013059:Spectrum Analysis, Raman / Q000379:methods*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014675:Vegetables; D001741:Black or African American
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D002338:Carotenoids