title: Cyanobacteria produce a high variety of hepatotoxic peptides in lichen symbiosis.
abstract: Lichens are symbiotic associations between fungi and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. Microcystins are potent toxins that are responsible for the poisoning of both humans and animals. These toxins are mainly associated with aquatic cyanobacterial blooms, but here we show that the cyanobacterial symbionts of terrestrial lichens from all over the world commonly produce microcystins. We screened 803 lichen specimens from five different continents for cyanobacterial toxins by amplifying a part of the gene cluster encoding the enzyme complex responsible for microcystin production and detecting toxins directly from lichen thalli. We found either the biosynthetic genes for making microcystins or the toxin itself in 12% of all analyzed lichen specimens. A plethora of different microcystins was found with over 50 chemical variants, and many of the variants detected have only rarely been reported from free-living cyanobacteria. In addition, high amounts of nodularin, up to 60 μg g(-1), were detected from some lichen thalli. This microcystin analog and potent hepatotoxin has previously been known only from the aquatic bloom-forming genus Nodularia. Our results demonstrate that the production of cyanobacterial hepatotoxins in lichen symbiosis is a global phenomenon and occurs in many different lichen lineages. The very high genetic diversity of the mcyE gene and the chemical diversity of microcystins suggest that lichen symbioses may have been an important environment for diversification of these cyanobacteria.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biosciences, Division of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, FIN-00014, Helsinki, Finland. a.kaasalainen@helsinki.fi
authors.forename: Ulla
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Kaasalainen
authors.forename: David P
authors.initials: DP
authors.lastname: Fewer
authors.forename: Jouni
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Jokela
authors.forename: Matti
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wahlsten
authors.forename: Kaarina
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Sivonen
authors.forename: Jouko
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Rikkinen
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001427:Bacterial Toxins / Q000633:toxicity; D001483:Base Sequence; D001499:Bayes Theorem; D000458:Cyanobacteria / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology*; D000087522:Cyanobacteria Toxins; D005798:Genes, Bacterial / Q000235:genetics; D005843:Geography; D006801:Humans; D008011:Lichens / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology*; D008099:Liver / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000473:pathology*; D008387:Marine Toxins / Q000633:toxicity; D052998:Microcystins / Q000633:toxicity; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D010455:Peptides / Q000633:toxicity*; D010456:Peptides, Cyclic / Q000633:toxicity; D010802:Phylogeny; D013048:Specimen Handling; D013559:Symbiosis / Q000187:drug effects*
chemical_list: D001427:Bacterial Toxins; D000087522:Cyanobacteria Toxins; D008387:Marine Toxins; D052998:Microcystins; D010455:Peptides; D010456:Peptides, Cyclic; C063998:nodularin