title: Children's pain perspectives.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Previous studies on children's pain perspectives remain limited to English-speaking populations.
  
  
  METHODS
  An exploratory cross-sectional descriptive design was used to investigate the developmental progression of children's pain perspectives, including their pain experience, its definition and attributes, causality and coping. The Children's Pain Perspectives Inventory was applied to 180 healthy Spanish children. A coding system was developed following the content analysis method. Three age groups were compared: 4-6 years, corresponding to the Piagetian pre-operational stage of cognitive development; 7-11 years, corresponding to stage of concrete operations; and 12-14 years, corresponding to the period of early formal operations.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In children between 4 and 6, the predominant narratives related to physical injuries, the notion of causality and the definition of pain. In children between 7 and 11, the predominant narratives were those in which pain was described as a sensation in one part of the body. The view of pain as having an emotional basis significantly increased with age and was more frequent in adolescents. In contrast, children between 4-6 and 7-11 indicated that pain occurs spontaneously. The denial of any positive aspects of pain significantly decreased with age; some children between 7 and 11 referred to the 'possibility of relief', while the view that pain is a 'learning experience' was significantly more frequent among adolescents aged between 12 and 14 years. The use of cognitive strategies to control pain significantly increased with age. Between 12 and 14 years of age, adolescents communicate pain by non-verbal behaviour and reported that they do not express demands for relief.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There was a progression from concrete to more complex notions of pain as age increased. These results may be of use to health professionals and parents to understand how children at various developmental stages express and cope with pain and to develop tools that effectively assess and manage pain in children.
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Personalidad, Evaluación y Tratamiento Psicológico, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain. zarazaga@uma.es
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Esteve
authors.forename: V
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Marquina-Aponte
mesh_terms: D000223:Adaptation, Psychological; D000293:Adolescent; D000367:Age Factors; D002648:Child; D002657:Child Development; D003071:Cognition; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004644:Emotions; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D009633:Nonverbal Communication; D010146:Pain / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000523:psychology*; D059408:Pain Management; D002666:Psychology, Child; D012649:Self Concept; D012677:Sensation