title: Inhalation of sulfur mustard causes long-term T cell-dependent inflammation: possible role of Th17 cells in chronic lung pathology.
abstract: Sulfur mustard (SM) is a highly toxic chemical warfare agent that remains a threat to human health. The immediate symptoms of pulmonary distress may develop into chronic lung injury characterized by progressive lung fibrosis, the major cause of morbidity among the surviving SM victims. Although SM has been intensely investigated, little is known about the mechanism(s) by which SM induces chronic lung pathology. Increasing evidence suggests that IL-17(+) cells are critical in fibrosis, including lung fibrotic diseases. In this study we exposed F344 rats and cynomolgus monkeys to SM via inhalation and determined the molecular and cellular milieu in their lungs at various times after SM exposure. In rats, SM induced a burst of pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines within 72 h, including IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6, CCL2, CCL3, CCL11, and CXCL1 that was associated with neutrophilic infiltration into the lung. At 2 wks and beyond (chronic phase), lymphocytic infiltration and continued elevated expression of cytokines/chemokines were sustained. TGF-β, which was undetectable in the acute phase, was strongly upregulated in the chronic phase; these conditions persisted until the animals were sacrificed. The chronic phase was also associated with myofibroblast proliferation, collagen deposition, and presence of IL-17(+) cells. At ≥30 days, SM inhalation promoted the accumulation of IL-17(+) cells in the inflamed areas of monkey lungs. Thus, SM inhalation causes acute and chronic inflammatory responses; the latter is characterized by the presence of TGF-β, fibrosis, and IL-17(+) cells in the lung. IL-17(+) cells likely play an important role in the pathogenesis of SM-induced lung injury.
authors.affiliation: Lovelace CounterACT Research Center of Excellence, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, 2425 Ridgecrest Dr. SE, Albuquerque, NM 87108, USA.
authors.forename: Neerad C
authors.initials: NC
authors.lastname: Mishra
authors.forename: Jules
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Rir-sima-ah
authors.forename: Gary R
authors.initials: GR
authors.lastname: Grotendorst
authors.forename: Raymond J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Langley
authors.forename: Shashi P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Singh
authors.forename: Sravanthi
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Gundavarapu
authors.forename: Waylon M
authors.initials: WM
authors.lastname: Weber
authors.forename: Juan C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Pena-Philippides
authors.forename: Matthew R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Duncan
authors.forename: Mohan L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Sopori
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects; D001992:Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid / Q000166:cytology / Q000276:immunology; D002619:Chemical Warfare Agents / Q000633:toxicity*; D002634:Chemotaxis, Leukocyte / Q000187:drug effects / Q000276:immunology; D016207:Cytokines / Q000235:genetics; D005260:Female; D007150:Immunohistochemistry; D020287:In Situ Nick-End Labeling; D019570:Inhalation Exposure; D008168:Lung / Q000187:drug effects / Q000276:immunology / Q000473:pathology; D055370:Lung Injury / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000276:immunology / Q000473:pathology; D018655:Lymphocyte Count; D008252:Macaca fascicularis; D009151:Mustard Gas / Q000633:toxicity*; D011658:Pulmonary Fibrosis / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000276:immunology / Q000473:pathology; D012333:RNA, Messenger / Q000235:genetics; D051381:Rats; D011916:Rats, Inbred F344; D060888:Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction; D058504:Th17 Cells / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000276:immunology
chemical_list: D002619:Chemical Warfare Agents; D016207:Cytokines; D012333:RNA, Messenger; D009151:Mustard Gas