title: Assessment of the face validity of two pain scales in Kenya: a validation study using cognitive interviewing.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Patients in sub-Saharan Africa commonly experience pain, which often is un-assessed and undertreated. One hindrance to routine pain assessment in these settings is the lack of a single-item pain rating scale validated for the particular context. The goal of this study was to examine the face validity and cultural acceptability of two single-item pain scales, the Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) and the Faces Pain Scale-Revised (FPS-R), in a population of patients on the medical, surgical, and pediatric wards of Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital in Kenya.
  
  
  METHODS
  Swahili versions of the NRS and FPS-R were developed by standard translation and back-translation. Cognitive interviews were performed with 15 patients at Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital in Eldoret, Kenya. Interview transcripts were analyzed on a question-by-question basis to identify major themes revealed through the cognitive interviewing process and to uncover any significant problems participants encountered with understanding and using the pain scales.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Cognitive interview analysis demonstrated that participants had good comprehension of both the NRS and the FPS-R and showed rational decision-making processes in choosing their responses. Participants felt that both scales were easy to use. The FPS-R was preferred almost unanimously to the NRS.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The face validity and acceptability of the Swahili versions of the NRS and FPS-R has been demonstrated for use in Kenyan patients. The broader application of these scales should be evaluated and may benefit patients who currently suffer from pain.
authors.affiliation: USAID - Academic Model Providing Access to Healthcare (AMPATH), P,O, Box 4806, Eldoret, Kenya. ggramels@iupui.edu.
authors.forename: Kristin Tl
authors.initials: KT
authors.lastname: Huang
authors.forename: Claudio
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Owino
authors.forename: Rachel C
authors.initials: RC
authors.lastname: Vreeman
authors.forename: Mildred
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hagembe
authors.forename: Festus
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Njuguna
authors.forename: R Matthew
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Strother
authors.forename: Gregory P
authors.initials: GP
authors.lastname: Gramelspacher