title: Engineering tendon and ligament tissues: present developments towards successful clinical products.
abstract: Musculoskeletal diseases are one of the leading causes of disability worldwide. Among them, tendon and ligament injuries represent an important aspect to consider in both athletes and active working people. Tendon and ligament damage is an important cause of joint instability, and progresses into early onset of osteoarthritis, pain, disability and eventually the need for joint replacement surgery. The social and economical burden associated with these medical conditions presents a compelling argument for greater understanding and expanding research on this issue. The particular physiology of tendons and ligaments (avascular, hypocellular and overall structural mechanical features) makes it difficult for currently available treatments to reach a complete and long-term functional repair of the damaged tissue, especially when complete tear occurs. Despite the effort, the treatment modalities for tendon and ligament are suboptimal, which have led to the development of alternative therapies, such as the delivery of growth factors, development of engineered scaffolds or the application of stem cells, which have been approached in this review.
authors.affiliation: 3Bs Research Group - Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, 4806-909 Taipas, Guimarães, Portugal.
authors.forename: Márcia T
authors.initials: MT
authors.lastname: Rodrigues
authors.forename: Rui L
authors.initials: RL
authors.lastname: Reis
authors.forename: Manuela E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Gomes
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D019149:Bioreactors; D006801:Humans; D036341:Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins / Q000008:administration & dosage; D007593:Joint Instability / Q000209:etiology; D008022:Ligaments / Q000293:injuries / Q000473:pathology*; D011474:Prosthesis Design; D013314:Stress, Mechanical; D013708:Tendon Injuries / Q000628:therapy; D013710:Tendons / Q000473:pathology*; D023822:Tissue Engineering / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D054457:Tissue Scaffolds
chemical_list: D036341:Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins