title: Longitudinal in vivo imaging of cones in the alert chicken.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To demonstrate the feasibility of in vivo measurements of cones and their distributions as a function of normal growth without adaptive optics (AO) and also discuss the potential advantages and disadvantages of AO imaging in the chick, an animal model of myopia.
  
  
  METHODS
  Chicks were obtained on the day of hatching. Axial length and retinoscopy measurements were performed on days 0 and 14. Chicks were imaged on the day of hatching and 14 days later in a custom-built confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope. Angular densities, linear cone spacings, and cone packing arrangements were determined.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Four subarrays of hexagonally packed cones were identified on both days and, from their angular spacings, appear to correspond to different cone types. There were no significant changes in angular cone density with growth and linear spacings of cones increased with growth. This is true for both overall densities and those of the cone subtypes. There was no change in the percent of hexagonally packed cones with growth.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Cones can be imaged longitudinally in vivo in the awake chick. The packing arrangement of cones is 40% hexagonally packed. Although AO is not necessary to visualize the cones, including the subarrays of like cones, some closely spaced cones of different types may not be resolved. Most importantly, there is a need to use a larger pupil with growth to maintain the same linear resolution in the larger eye. Novel longitudinal imaging techniques and methods in animal models are shown here to give insights into normal development and, in future, will give insights into visual disorders and diseases, including myopia.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physics and Astronomy, School of Optometry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. mkisilak@sciborg.uwaterloo.ca
authors.forename: Marsha L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Kisilak
authors.forename: Kaitlin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Bunghardt
authors.forename: Jennifer J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Hunter
authors.forename: Elizabeth L
authors.initials: EL
authors.lastname: Irving
authors.forename: Melanie C W
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Campbell
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002452:Cell Count; D002645:Chickens; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D018450:Disease Progression; D005240:Feasibility Studies; D009216:Myopia / Q000175:diagnosis*; D017949:Retinal Cone Photoreceptor Cells / Q000166:cytology*; D042262:Retinoscopy / Q000379:methods*; D012720:Severity of Illness Index