title: Does pain necessarily have an affective component? Negative evidence from blink reflex experiments.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Experimental pain research has shown that the affective component of pain is influenced strongly by situational characteristics; affective pain processing appears to be particularly pronounced in situations that provoke a feeling of uncertainty and uncontrollability.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To determine whether the affective component of pain can be completely abolished if a 'safe', particularly predictable stimulation paradigm is applied.
  
  
  METHODS
  Forty healthy volunteers recruited at the University of Bamberg (Bamberg, Germany) were assessed in two experiments. Tonic contact heat stimuli staged in three intensities (warmth, heat and pain) relative to the individual pain threshold was applied; these were predictable with regard to intensity and course, and the subjects had easy access to control. The startle reflex was assessed as an objective measure of affective response. In addition, the subjects provided unpleasantness ratings. To compare these results to a gold standard for affective response, affective pictures taken from the International Affective Picture System were presented during temperature stimulation in the second experiment.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Both experiments showed no potentiation of the startle reflex under painful heat stimulation compared with the two nonpainful stimulus intensities (heat and warmth), although the painful stimulation was clearly rated as more unpleasant.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Results suggest that it is possible to develop a 'safe' noxious stimulus, which is rated as clearly unpleasant, but lacks physiological indication of negative affect. This divergence might be explained by subjective ratings being influenced by the instructions. The possibility of reducing the pain affect by suggesting 'safety' may be of therapeutic interest.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiological Psychology, University of Bamberg, Germany. claudia.horn@uni-bamberg.de
authors.forename: Claudia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Horn
authors.forename: Yvonne
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Blischke
authors.forename: Miriam
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kunz
authors.forename: Stefan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Lautenbacher
mesh_terms: D000161:Acoustic Stimulation; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D001767:Blinking / Q000502:physiology*; D004576:Electromyography; D004644:Emotions / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D007839:Functional Laterality / Q000502:physiology; D006358:Hot Temperature / Q000009:adverse effects; D006801:Humans; D007866:Leg / Q000294:innervation; D008297:Male; D010146:Pain / Q000503:physiopathology*; D010147:Pain Measurement; D017288:Pain Threshold / Q000502:physiology*; D010775:Photic Stimulation; D011930:Reaction Time / Q000502:physiology; D013216:Reflex, Startle / Q000502:physiology; D013696:Temperature; D055815:Young Adult