title: Stem cells combined with bone graft substitutes in skeletal tissue engineering.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Bone grafting is used to repair large bone defects and autograft is recognised as producing the best clinical outcome, which is partly due to its cellular component. When autograft is unavailable, allograft and bone graft substitutes can be used; however, they rely on the host bed to provide cellular osteogenic activity.
  
  
  METHODS
  Bone graft substitutes have the potential to benefit from the addition of stem cells aimed at enhancing the rate and quality of defect repair. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can be isolated from bone marrow or periosteum and culture expanded. Other sources of primary cells include muscle, adipose tissue, human umbilical cord and the pluripotent embryonic stem cells (ESCs).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  MSCs isolated from bone marrow have been the best characterised approach for osteogenic differentiation. Their use with synthetic scaffolds such as hydroxyapatite and tricalcium phosphate has produced promising clinical results. MSCs derived from adipose tissue, muscle or human umbilical cord cells combined with various scaffolds are an attractive option. Further in vivo and clinical investigation of their potential is required. Pluripotent ESCs have a theoretical advantage over MSCs; however, purification, cell-specific differentiation, effective delivery vehicles-scaffolds and teratogenesis control are still under in vitro and in vivo evaluation.
authors.affiliation: Newcastle University, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Musculoskeletal Research group, Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear NE17RU, UK.
authors.forename: Zakareya
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Gamie
authors.forename: Gui Tong
authors.initials: GT
authors.lastname: Tran
authors.forename: George
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Vyzas
authors.forename: Nectarios
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Korres
authors.forename: Manolis
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Heliotis
authors.forename: Athanasios
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mantalaris
authors.forename: Eleftherios
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Tsiridis
mesh_terms: D053687:Adult Stem Cells / Q000637:transplantation; D000818:Animals; D018786:Bone Substitutes; D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000601:surgery*; D002454:Cell Differentiation; D049109:Cell Proliferation; D002469:Cell Separation; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D053595:Embryonic Stem Cells / Q000637:transplantation; D006801:Humans; D057026:Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells / Q000637:transplantation; D045164:Mesenchymal Stem Cell Transplantation; D010012:Osteogenesis; D012038:Regeneration; D044968:Regenerative Medicine / Q000379:methods*; D023822:Tissue Engineering; D054457:Tissue Scaffolds
chemical_list: D018786:Bone Substitutes