title: Demography of Simakobu (Simias concolor) and the impact of human disturbance.
abstract: Asian colobines typically live in small one-male groups (OMGs) averaging five adult females, but Simias concolor (simakobu or pig-tailed langur) is considered an exception because mostly adult male-female pairs have been reported. However, based on their phylogenetic position and marked sexual dimorphism, simakobu are also expected to form OMGs with multiple females. The preponderance of small groups could be the result of human disturbance (hunting or habitat disturbance) reducing group size in the recent past. To investigate this possibility, we documented the demography of ten wild simakobu groups from January 2007 until December 2008 at an undisturbed site, the Peleonan Forest, Siberut Island, Indonesia. We assessed the population-specific size and composition of groups and documented demographic changes due to births, disappearances, and dispersals throughout our 2-year study. We found OMGs with 3.0 adult females on average in addition to all-male groups, but no adult male-female pairs. The ratio of 0.5 infants per adult female (and 0.64 births per female-year in focal groups) suggested that birth rates were similar to those of other Asian colobines. In 5.1 group-years, we observed six dispersal events and six temporary presences (i.e., less than 3 months' residency). Both males and females dispersed, and juveniles seemed to disperse more frequently than adults. To assess the impact of human disturbance on simakobu demography, we compiled data for seven additional populations from the literature and compared them using multiple regressions. Adult sex ratio and the number of immatures per group were influenced negatively by hunting and positively by habitat disturbance while reproductive rates were not significantly affected by either variable. These findings suggest that adult male-female pairs may result from hunting pressure reducing group size, and that conservation action to reduce hunting in the Mentawai Islands is needed to ensure the survival of this critically endangered species.
authors.affiliation: Interdepartmental Doctoral Program in Anthropological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-4364, USA. erbivorous@gmail.com
authors.forename: Wendy M
authors.initials: WM
authors.lastname: Erb
authors.forename: Carola
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Borries
authors.forename: Nurul S
authors.initials: NS
authors.lastname: Lestari
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Ziegler
mesh_terms: D025041:Animal Migration; D000818:Animals; D016673:Colobinae / Q000502:physiology / Q000523:psychology*; D003710:Demography; D056727:Endangered Species / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005260:Female; D005843:Geography; D006801:Humans; D007214:Indonesia; D008297:Male; D036801:Parturition; D011156:Population Density; D012044:Regression Analysis; D012744:Sex Ratio