title: Occurrence of alternative flame retardants in indoor dust from New Zealand: indoor sources and human exposure assessment.
abstract: Due to worldwide restrictions on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), the demand for alternative flame retardants (AFRs), such as organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), novel brominated FRs (NBFRs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), has recently increased. Little is known about human exposure to NBFRs and OPFRs and that their levels in dust have been scarcely evaluated worldwide. To increase the knowledge regarding these chemicals, we measured concentrations of five major NBFRs, ten OPFRs and three HBCD isomers in indoor dust from New Zealand homes. Dust samples were taken from living room floors (n=34) and from mattresses of the same houses (n=16). Concentrations (ngg(-1)) of NBFRs were: 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE) (<2-175), decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) (<5-1430), 2-ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (TBB) (<2-2285) and bis(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromophthalate (TBPH) (<2-640). For OPFRs, concentrations (ngg(-1)) ranged between: tri-ethyl-phosphate (TEP) (<10-235), tri-n-butyl-phosphate (TnBP) (<20-7545), tris-(2-chloroethyl)-phosphate (TCEP) (<20-7605), tris-(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP) (20-7615), tri-(2-butoxyethyl)-phosphate (TBEP) (50-27325), tris-(2,3-dichloropropyl)-phosphate (TDCPP) (20-16560), tri-phenyl-phosphate (TPhP) (20-35190), and tri-cresyl-phosphate (TCP) (<50-3760). HBCD concentrations fell in the range <2-4100ngg(-1). BTBPE, DBDPE, TBPH, TBEP, and TnBP showed significant positive correlation (p<0.05) between their concentrations in mattresses and the corresponding floor dust (n=16). These data were used to derive a range of plausible exposure scenarios. Although the estimated exposure is well below the corresponding reference doses (RfDs), caution is needed given the likely future increase in use of these FRs and the currently unknown contribution to human exposure by other pathways such as inhalation and diet.
authors.affiliation: Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
authors.forename: Nadeem
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Ali
authors.forename: Alin C
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Dirtu
authors.forename: Nele
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Van den Eede
authors.forename: Emma
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Goosey
authors.forename: Stuart
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Harrad
authors.forename: Hugo
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Neels
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: 't Mannetje
authors.forename: Jonathan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Coakley
authors.forename: Jeroen
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Douwes
authors.forename: Adrian
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Covaci
mesh_terms: D016902:Air Pollution, Indoor / Q000032:analysis*; D001969:Bromobenzenes / Q000032:analysis; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005411:Flame Retardants / Q000032:analysis*; D055768:Halogenated Diphenyl Ethers / Q000032:analysis; D006801:Humans; D006842:Hydrocarbons, Brominated / Q000032:analysis; D009520:New Zealand; D010755:Organophosphates / Q000032:analysis; D009943:Organophosphorus Compounds / Q000032:analysis
chemical_list: D001969:Bromobenzenes; D005411:Flame Retardants; D055768:Halogenated Diphenyl Ethers; D006842:Hydrocarbons, Brominated; D010755:Organophosphates; D009943:Organophosphorus Compounds; C012085:tris(2,3-dibromopropyl)phosphate; C081014:1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane; C089796:hexabromocyclododecane