title: Effects of perfusion and dynamic loading on human neocartilage formation in alginate hydrogels.
abstract: Dynamic loading and perfusion culture environments alone are known to enhance cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM) production in dedifferentiated articular chondrocytes. In this study, we explored whether a combination of these factors would enhance these processes over a free-swelling (FS) condition using adult human articular chondrocytes embedded in 2% alginate. The alginate constructs were placed into a bioreactor for perfusion (P) only (100 μL/per minute) or perfusion and dynamic compressive loading (PL) culture (20% for 1 h, at 0.5 Hz), each day. Control FS alginate gels were maintained in six-well static culture. Gene expression analysis was conducted on days 7 and 14, while cell viability, immunostaining, and mechanical property testing were performed on day 14 only. Total glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content and GAG synthesis were assessed after 14 days. Col2a1 mRNA expression levels were significantly higher (at least threefold; p<0.05) in both bioreactor conditions compared with FS by days 7 and 14. For all gene studies, no significant differences were seen between P and PL treatments. Aggrecan mRNA levels were not significantly altered in any condition although both GAG/DNA and (35)S GAG incorporation studies indicated higher GAG retention and synthesis in the FS treatment. Collagen type II protein deposition was low in all samples, link protein distribution was more diffuse in FS condition, and aggrecan deposition was located in the outer regions of the alginate constructs in both bioreactor conditions, yet more uniformly in the FS condition. Catabolic gene expression (matrix metalloproteinase 3 [MMP3] and inducible nitric oxide synthase [iNOS]) was higher in bioreactor conditions compared with FS, although iNOS expression levels decreased to approximately fourfold less than the FS condition by day 14. Our data indicate that conditions created in the bioreactor enhanced both anabolic and catabolic responses, similar to other loading studies. Perfusion was sufficient alone to promote this dual response. PL increased the deposition of aggrecan surrounding cells compared with the other conditions; however, overall low GAG retention in the bioreactor system was likely due to both perfusion and catabolic conditions created. Optimal conditions, which permit appropriate anabolic and catabolic processes for accumulation of ECM and tissue remodeling for neocartilage development, specifically for humans, are needed.
authors.affiliation: Shiley Center for Orthopaedic Research and Education at Scripps Clinic, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
authors.forename: Shawn P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Grogan
authors.forename: Sujata
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Sovani
authors.forename: Chantal
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Pauli
authors.forename: Jianfen
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.forename: Andreas
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hartmann
authors.forename: Clifford W
authors.initials: CW
authors.lastname: Colwell
authors.forename: Martin K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Lotz
authors.forename: Darryl D
authors.initials: DD
authors.lastname: D'Lima
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000464:Alginates / Q000494:pharmacology*; D019149:Bioreactors; D002358:Cartilage, Articular / Q000166:cytology / Q000502:physiology*; D002470:Cell Survival / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D019902:Chondrocytes / Q000166:cytology / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D020219:Chondrogenesis / Q000187:drug effects*; D004247:DNA / Q000378:metabolism; D005260:Female; D020869:Gene Expression Profiling; D005786:Gene Expression Regulation / Q000187:drug effects; D020723:Glucuronic Acid / Q000494:pharmacology; D006025:Glycosaminoglycans / Q000378:metabolism; D006603:Hexuronic Acids / Q000494:pharmacology; D006801:Humans; D020100:Hydrogels / Q000494:pharmacology*; D007150:Immunohistochemistry; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D010477:Perfusion / Q000379:methods*; D016474:Weight-Bearing / Q000502:physiology; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D000464:Alginates; D006025:Glycosaminoglycans; D006603:Hexuronic Acids; D020100:Hydrogels; D020723:Glucuronic Acid; D004247:DNA